Nos. APL-2015-00235, APL-2015-00236
Court of Appeals
STATE OF NEW YORK
ESTRELLITA A.,
Petitioner-Respondent,
—against—
JENNIFER L.D.,
Respondent-Appellant.
BROOKE S.B.,
Petitioner-Respondent,
—against—
ELIZABETH A.C.C.,
Respondent-Respondent.
______________________
R. THOMAS RANKIN, ATTORNEY FOR THE CHILD,
Appellant.
BRIEF AMICUS CURIAE OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF
SOCIAL WORKERS, THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SOCIAL
WORKERS’ NEW YORK STATE CHAPTER, AND THE NATIONAL
ASSOCIATION OF SOCIAL WORKERS’ NEW YORK CITY CHAPTER IN
SUPPORT OF PETITIONER-RESPONDENT
CLEARY GOTTLIEB STEEN & HAMILTON LLP
Carmine D. Boccuzzi
Daniel D. Queen
One Liberty Plaza
New York, New York 10006
(212) 225-2000
Counsel for Amici Curiae National Association of Social
Workers, National Association of Social Workers’ New
York State Chapter, and National Association of Social
Workers’ New York City Chapter
March 18, 2016
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ i
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES .................................................................................... ii
INTEREST OF AMICI CURIAE ............................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT ........................................ 4
ARGUMENT ............................................................................................................. 7
I. Parent-Child Attachment Relationships Are Critical to a Child’s
Healthy Development. ........................................................................... 7
II. The Absence of a Biological or Adoptive Connection Between
Brooke S.B. and Estrellita A. and the Children Did Not Affect
the Development of Attachment Relationships................................... 10
III. Terminating the Children’s Attachment Relationships with
Brooke S.B. and Estrellita A. Would Result in Emotional Harm
to the Children ..................................................................................... 14
IV. The Children’s Health and Welfare Are Best Served by
Nurturing and Maintaining Their Relationships with Brooke
S.B. and Estrellita A. as Well as Their Biological Mothers................ 17
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 19
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TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
Cases
Arriaga v. Dukoff,
123 A.D.3d 1023 (2d Dep’t 2014) .................................................................... 4, 6
Barone v. Chapman-Cleland,
129 A.D.3d 1578 (4th Dep’t 2015) ............................................................... 4-5, 6
Chatterjee v. King,
280 P.3d 283 (N.M. 2012) .................................................................................. 11
Debra H. v Janice R.,
14 N.Y.3d 576 (N.Y. 2010) .................................................................................. 5
Estrellita A. v. Jennifer L.D.,
40 Misc. 3d 219 (Fam. Ct., Suffolk Cty. 2013) .................................................... 4
In the Matter of Alison D. v. Virginia M.,
77 N.Y.2d 651 (N.Y. 1991) .................................................................................. 5
Jaffee v. Redmond,
518 U.S. 1 (1996) .................................................................................................. 1
Kennedy v. Louisiana,
554 U.S. 407 (2008) .............................................................................................. 1
Safford Unified Sch. Dist. #1 v. Redding,
557 U.S. 364 (2009) .............................................................................................. 1
Tropea v. Tropea,
87 N.Y.2d 727 (N.Y. 1996) .................................................................................. 5
Other Authorities
Am. Acad. of Pediatrics, Developmental Issues for Young Children in
Foster Care, 106 Pediatrics 1145 (2000) ........................................................... 14
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Am. Acad. of Pediatrics, Policy Statement: Coparent or Second-Parent
Adoption by Same-Sex Parents, 109 Pediatrics 339 (2002) ............................... 18
Am. Acad. of Pediatrics, Technical Report: Coparent or Second-Parent
Adoption by Same-Sex Parents, 109 Pediatrics 341 (2002) ............................... 12
Am. Acad. of Pediatrics, Technical Report: Promoting the Well-Being of
Children Whose Parents Are Gay or Lesbian, 131 Pediatrics e1374
(2013) .................................................................................................................. 12
Ana H. Marty et al., Supporting Secure Parent-Child Attachments: The
Role of the Non-parental Caregiver, 175 Early Childhood Dev. & Care
271 (2005) ..................................................................................................... 11, 15
Anne Brewaeys et al., Donor Insemination: Child Development and Family
Functioning in Lesbian Mother Families, 12 Human Reprod. 1349
(1997) .................................................................................................................. 13
Beverly James, Handbook for Treatment of Attachment-Trauma Problems in
Children 2 (1994) .................................................................................................. 7
Bruce D. Perry et al., Childhood Trauma, the Neurobiology of Adaptation,
and “Use-dependent” Development of the Brain: How “States” Become
“Traits”, 16 Infant Mental Health J. 271 (1995) ............................................... 14
Charlotte J. Patterson, Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents, 63 Child Dev.
1025 (1992) ......................................................................................................... 18
Daniel J. Siegel, The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain
Interact to Shape Who We Are (2d ed. 2012) ...................................................... 8
Danielle H. Dallaire & Marsha Weinraub, Infant-Mother Attachment
Security and Children’s Anxiety and Aggression at First Grade, 28 J.
Applied Dev. Pyschol. 477 (2007) ..................................................................... 10
Denise Donnelly & David Finkelhor, Does Equality in Custody
Arrangement Improve Parent-Child Relationship?, 54 J. Marriage &
Fam. 837 (1992) .................................................................................................. 17
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Fiona L. Tasker & Susan Golombok, Growing Up in a lesbian Family:
Effects on Child Development 12 (1997) ........................................................... 16
Fiona Tasker, Lesbian Mothers, Gay Fathers, and Their Children: A
Review, 26 Dev. & Behavioral Pediatrics 224 (2005) .................................. 12-13
J. Stacey & T. Biblarz, (How) Does the Sexual Orientation of Parents
Matter?, 66 Am. Sociol. Rev. 159 (2001) .................................................... 12, 13
J. Wainwright & C. Patterson, Peer Relations Among Adolescents with
Female Same-Sex Parents, 44 Dev. Psychology 117 (2008) ....................... 11-12
James G. Byrne et al., Practitioner Review: The Contribution of Attachment
Theory to Child Custody Assessments, 46 J. Child Psychology &
Psychiatry 115 (2005) ..................................................................................... 9, 15
Jane D. McLeod et al., Trajectories of Poverty and Children’s Mental
Health, 37 J. Health & Soc. Behavior 207 (1996) .............................................. 18
Joseph Goldstein et al. Beyond the Best Interests of the Child, The Best
Interests of the Child: The Least Detrimental Alternative 16 (1996) .... 10-11, 14
Kimberly A. Faust & Jerome N. McKibben, Marital Dissolution: Divorce,
Separation, Annulment, and Widowhood, HANDBOOK OF MARRIAGE AND
THE FAMILY 474 (2d ed. 1999) ............................................................................ 17
Mark D. Simms et al., Health Care Needs of Children in the Foster Care
System, 106 PEDIATRICS 909 (2000) ................................................................... 15
Mary A. Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of
the Strange Situation 20 (1978) ............................................................................ 7
Michael E. Lamb, Placing Children’s Interests First: Developmentally
Appropriate Parenting Plans, 10 Va. J. Soc. Pol’y & L. 98 (2002) .................. 17
Nat’l Research Council & Inst. of Med., From Neurons to Neighborhoods:
The Science of Early Childhood Development 226 (Jack P. Shonkoff &
Deborah A. Phillips eds., 2000) .......................................................... 8, 11, 15, 18
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Ross A. Thompson & Miranda Goodman, Development of Self,
Relationships, and Socioemotional Competence: Foundations for Early
School Success, Handbook of Child Development & Early Education:
Research to Practice 147 (2009) ........................................................................... 9
R.P. Fearon et al., The Significance of Insecure Attachment and
Disorganization in the Development of Children’s Externalizing
Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Study, 81 Child Dev. 435 (2010) ........................... 10
Sanders Korenman et al., Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the
United States: Results from the NLSY, 17 Children of Youth Services.
Rev. 127 (1996) .................................................................................................. 18
Terry M. Levy & Michael Orlans, Attachment, Trauma and Healing (2d ed.
2014) ............................................................................................................. 7, 8, 9
W. Andrew Collins & L. Alan Sroufe, Capacity for Intimate Relationships:
A Developmental Construction in The Development of Romantic
Relationships in Adolescence 125 (Wyndol Furman et al., eds., 1999) ......... 9-10
William F. Hodges, Interventions for Children of Divorce: Custody, Access,
and Psychotherapy 8 (2d ed. 1991) .................................................... 14-15, 15-16
Yvon Gauthier et al., Clinical Application of Attachment Theory in
Permanency Planning for Children in Foster Care: The Importance of
Continuity of Care, 25 Infant Mental Health J. 379 (2004) ................................ 16
[NEWYORK 3164232_17]
INTEREST OF AMICI CURIAE
Established in 1955, the National Association of Social Workers
(NASW) is the largest association of professional social workers in the United
States, with over 130,000 members in 55 chapters. The New York State Chapter
of NASW has 8,700 members, and the New York City Chapter of NASW has
7,800 members.
As part of its mission to improve the quality and effectiveness of
social work practice, NASW promulgates professional standards and the NASW
Code of Ethics, conducts research, provides continuing education, and develops
policy statements on issues of importance to the social work profession. NASW
also advocates for sound public policies, including by filing amicus curiae briefs in
appropriate cases. See, e.g., Safford Unified Sch. Dist. #1 v. Redding, 557 U.S.
364, 375 (2009) (citing NASW amicus brief); Kennedy v. Louisiana, 554 U.S. 407,
443 (2008) (same); Jaffee v. Redmond, 518 U.S. 1, 16 (1996) (same). Consistent
with the purview of the social work profession itself, these efforts have
addressed—among many other issues—questions about how biological,
psychological, interpersonal, environmental, and cultural factors shape and affect
children and families.
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Social workers have a wealth of knowledge and experience with
respect to these issues. Social workers have a long tradition of direct work with
children in a wide range of practice settings, including hospitals, schools, mental
health clinics, shelters, group homes, and private practice. Social workers provide
counseling to families and children regarding family transitions, perform adoption
home studies and post-placement evaluations, conduct child custody evaluations,
and testify as expert witnesses in many legal proceedings affecting the welfare of
children, including proceedings involving child custody and visitation, termination
of parental rights, parental fitness, foster care and permanency planning, and
adoptions.
NASW is committed by its policy statements, as well as its NASW
Code of Ethics, to advancing policies and practices that improve the lives of
children, including those raised in same-sex-parent families. Consistent with those
goals, NASW supports granting gay, lesbian, and bisexual people all rights,
privileges, and responsibilities that are granted to heterosexual people. These
include, among other things, the ability of same-sex-parent families to enjoy the
same child custody rights that heterosexual-parent families enjoy, and the legal
recognition of LGBT families through comprehensive parental recognition laws at
the state level to fully protect children raised in these families.
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For these reasons, NASW, along with its New York State and New
York City Chapters, supports Petitioner-Respondent Brooke S.B.’s and Petitioner-
Respondent Estrellita A.’s standing to obtain hearings to determine whether they
should be awarded custody of and visitation with the children in their respective
cases. NASW and its New York State and New York City Chapters therefore file
this brief in support of these children’s development and well-being, and in support
of the development, well-being, and best interests of all similarly-situated children
in the State of New York.
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INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT
Same-sex parents with children are an increasingly common type of
modern family. In many such families, one of the child’s parents is the biological
mother of the child, while her same-sex partner is a “functional parent”—i.e., a
person who lacks a biological or adoptive connection to the child, but otherwise
functions as the child’s parent in every respect.
These cases address two families that may fit that description. In
one case, Estrellita A. v. Jennifer L.D., Jennifer’s former same-sex partner,
Estrellita, sought custody of and visitation with Jennifer’s biological daughter after
she and Jennifer ended their relationship. 40 Misc. 3d 219 (Fam. Ct., Suffolk Cty.
2013). Prior to their separation, Estrellita and Jennifer “shared in the
responsibilities of taking care of the child, and they agreed she would call
[Jennifer] ‘mommy’ and [Estrellita] ‘mama,’” even though Estrellita was not
biologically related to and never adopted the child. Arriaga v. Dukoff, 123 A.D.3d
1023, 1023 (2d Dep’t 2014). Ultimately, the Family Court – and then the Second
Department – found that Estrellita had standing to pursue custody and visitation of
the child.
The other case, Brooke S.B., deals with a similar situation: after the
relationship ended, Brooke sought custody and visitation rights with the child that
she and Elizabeth had raised together. Again, Brooke was not biologically related
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to the child, and she never formally adopted him. In this case, however, Brooke’s
lack of a biological or formal adoptive connection to the child made a difference to
the courts. The Family Court rejected Brooke’s request to seek custody and
visitation, and the Fourth Department confirmed that ruling, concluding that “a
nonbiological, nonadoptive parent does not have standing to seek visitation when a
biological parent who is fit opposes it,” and that there would be no exception to
this rule “even where the nonparent has enjoyed a close relationship with the
child . . . .” Barone v. Chapman-Cleland, 129 A.D.3d 1578, 1579 (4th Dep’t
2015).
In New York, courts have refused to grant standing for custody rights
except to parents with adoptive or genetic ties to the child. See In re Alison D. v.
Virginia M., 77 N.Y.2d 651, 657 (N.Y. 1991); see also Debra H. v Janice R., 14
N.Y.3d 576, 599-600 (N.Y. 2010). This stands in tension with the principle that
courts should base child custody and visitation rights on the best interests of the
child, not on any mechanical application of bright-line rules. Cf. Tropea v. Tropea,
87 N.Y.2d 727, 739 (N.Y. 1996) (rejecting a “mechanical” approach to custodial
rights in favor of an analysis “with due consideration of all the relevant facts and
circumstances and with predominant emphasis being placed on what outcome is
most likely to serve the best interests of the child”). But the Fourth Department’s
decision, unlike the Second Department’s decision, does precisely the opposite: it
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elevates a bright-line rule (“a non-biological, non-adoptive parent does not have
standing to seek visitation”) over what may be in the child’s best interest – the
maintenance of his relationship with Brooke.1
In order to properly weigh a child’s best interests, a court must hear
from the non-biological, non-adoptive parent and analyze what type of relationship
is at stake. Then, if appropriate, the non-biological, non-adoptive parent should be
permitted to petition for custody or visitation like any other parent. If it fails to
undertake this analysis, the court risks dissolving a critical relationship between the
child and one of its parents, with the result that the child’s development and well-
being can be impaired.
As shown below, this approach is consistent with extensive
psychological, medical, and sociological research studying the relationships
between parents and their children. This research explains that attachment
relationships develop between children and their parents, and that these
attachments are crucial to children’s neurological and psychological development.
Crucially, these attachment relationships form regardless of whether the child is
biologically related to the parent, whether the parent has adopted the child or
whether the parent is in a same-sex relationship with the biological parent.
1 The procedural histories of Barone and Arriaga differ in at least one relevant way. The Fourth Department held
that the functional parent in Barone lacked standing under Alison D. Barone, 129 A.D.3d at 1578. The Second
Department held that the functional parent in Arriaga had standing because she had been adjudicated a parent in
child support proceedings. Arriaga, 123 A.D.3d at 1023.
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Terminating the relationship ignores the best interest of the child and may cause
serious psychological harm. Moreover, research shows that a child’s continued
relationship with two parents (such as a biological parent and functional parent)
rather than one parent brings psychological and economic benefits to the child.
ARGUMENT
I. Parent-Child Attachment Relationships Are Critical to a Child’s
Healthy Development
At the core of any child’s development is the attachment relationship
that the child forms with the parents who care for the child. In this context, an
attachment relationship is defined as “a reciprocal, enduring, emotional, and
physical affiliation between a child and a caregiver.” Beverly James, Handbook for
Treatment of Attachment-Trauma Problems in Children 2 (1994). “Attachment is
the base from which children explore their physical and social environments,” and
“their early attachment experiences form their concepts of self, others, and the
world.” Id.; see also, e.g., Terry M. Levy & Michael Orlans, Attachment, Trauma
and Healing 15-16 (2d ed. 2014). Indeed, “[a]ttachment figures are one’s most
trusted companions.” Mary A. Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment: A
Psychological Study of the Strange Situation 20 (1978).
Attachment relationships have profound biological, psychological,
and social effects on a child’s development. Research in developmental
psychology and neurology confirm that a child’s attachment relationships are the
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major factor shaping brain development during the period of maximal brain
growth. See Daniel J. Siegel, The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the
Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are 91-93 (2d ed. 2012). Accordingly,
attachment relationships may “create the central foundation from which the mind
develops.” Id. at 92; see also Nat’l Research Council & Inst. of Med., From
Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development 226
(Jack P. Shonkoff & Deborah A. Phillips eds., 2000) (“[W]hat young children
learn, how they react to the events and people around them, and what they expect
from themselves and others are deeply affected by their relationships with
parents.”).
From a social perspective, attachment relationships help children “to
learn basic trust and reciprocity”; to “explore the environment with feelings of
safety and security . . ., which leads to healthy cognitive and social development”;
and “to create a foundation for the formation of an identity that includes a sense of
competency, self-worth, and a balance between dependence and autonomy.” Levy
& Orlans, supra, at 15. Attachment relationships also aid children’s emotional
growth and their development of a belief system. Id.; see also Nat’l Research
Council & Inst. of Med., supra, at 265 (parent-child relationships “shape the
development of self-awareness, social competence, conscience, emotional growth
and emotion regulation, [and] learning and cognitive growth”). Likewise,
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“[t]hrough a history of consistent and sensitive care with the parent, [a] child
develops a model of self and others as lovable and loving/helpful that may make
him/her comparatively more likely to cope with challenge and stress (e.g., by
relying on others for support or guidance).” James G. Byrne et al., Practitioner
Review: The Contribution of Attachment Theory to Child Custody Assessments, 46
J. Child Psychol. & Psychiatry 115, 118 (2005); see also Levy & Orlans, supra, at
15 (attachment relationships help a child “to provide a defense against stress and
trauma, which incorporates resourcefulness and resilience”).2
As a result, empirical research demonstrates that secure attachments in
childhood are necessary for a child to develop close relationships later in life. See,
e.g., W. Andrew Collins & L. Alan Sroufe, Capacity for Intimate Relationships: A
Developmental Construction, The Development of Romantic Relationships in
Adolescence 125, 127-30 (Wyndol Furman et al., eds., 1999). For instance, one
study has shown that “security of attachment in infancy strongly predicted
preschool characteristics of self-reliance, effective peer relationships (including
empathy and affective engagement), and positive relationships with teachers.” Id.
2 See also Ross A. Thompson & Miranda Goodman, Development of Self, Relationships, and
Socioemotional Competence: Foundations for Early School Success, Handbook of Child
Development and Early Education: Research to Practice 147, 161 (2009) (“Decades of research
on early parent-child relationships have shown that young children rely on their attachment
figures for emotional security and well-being, and that these relationships influence developing
personality, social skills, self-concept, and understanding what other people are
like. . . . [A]ttachment relationships also play an important role in the development of early
school readiness and school achievement.”).
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at 128 (citations omitted). In contrast, children without secure attachments “were
not only significantly less competent in [peer relationships], but were more
aggressive in the classroom.” Id.; see also, e.g., R.P. Fearon et al., The
Significance of Insecure Attachment and Disorganization in the Development of
Children’s Externalizing Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Study, 81 Child Dev. 435,
436 (2010) (meta-analysis of many attachment studies finds a significant
relationship between insecure attachment and aggressive “externalizing” behavior
among children); Danielle H. Dallaire & Marsha Weinraub, Infant-Mother
Attachment Security and Children’s Anxiety and Aggression at First Grade, 28 J.
Applied Dev. Psychol. 477, 489 (2007) (finding that attachment during infancy
helped prevent children from developing anxiety and assisted in their ability to
cope with stress in first grade).
II. The Absence of a Biological or Adoptive Connection Between
Brooke S.B. and Estrellita A. and the Children Did Not Affect the
Development of Attachment Relationships
The development of attachment relationships is not related to biology
or the formal adoption process. See Joseph Goldstein et al., Beyond the Best
Interests of the Child, The Best Interests of the Child: The Least Detrimental
Alternative 16 (1996) (describing “[functional parent] relationships that develop
outside of placement by formal adoption or by the initial assignment of a child to
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her biological parents”).3 Rather, the quality and nature of the interaction between
the child and its parent, as opposed to any biological or legal connection, creates
and sustains attachment relationships. See, e.g., Ana H. Marty et al., Supporting
Secure Parent-Child Attachments: The Role of the Non-parental Caregiver, 175
Early Childhood Dev. & Care 271, 273 (2005) (“[T]he quality of [children’s]
attachment relationships is dependent on the nature of the interactions with their
parents or other caregivers.”); Nat’l Research Council & Inst. of Med., supra, at
234 (explaining that attachment bonds develop with caregivers if they provide
“physical and emotional care, continuity or consistency in the child’s life, and
emotional investment in the child”).
Further, the development of an attachment relationship between a
non-biological, non-adoptive parent and her child is unaffected by the fact that the
parent is in a same-sex relationship, rather than a heterosexual relationship, with
the biological parent. Empirical research overwhelmingly demonstrates that
lesbian and gay parents develop just as strong attachments to their children as
heterosexual parents do—characterized by the same level of warmth, closeness,
and emotional involvement. See, e.g., J. Wainwright & C. Patterson, Peer
Relations Among Adolescents with Female Same-Sex Parents, 44 Dev. Psychology
3 See also, e.g., Chatterjee v. King, 280 P.3d 283, 292 (N.M. 2012) (citing Goldstein et al.’s
Beyond the Best Interests of the Child to explain that “attachment bonds that form between a
child and a parent are formed regardless of a biological or legal connection”).
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117, 122 (2008) (adolescents had as warm relationships with same-sex parents as
opposite-sex parents); J. Stacey & T. Biblarz, (How) Does the Sexual Orientation
of Parents Matter?, 66 Am. Sociol. Rev. 159, 176 (2001) (finding that “[l]evels of
closeness and quality of parent/child relationships” were the same regardless of
sexual orientation). This is unsurprising, as research also confirms that lesbians’
and gay men’s parenting styles and skills do not differ from those of heterosexual
women and men. See, e.g., Am. Acad. of Pediatrics, Technical Report: Coparent
or Second-Parent Adoption by Same-Sex Parents, 109 Pediatrics 341, 343 (2002)
(“[T]he weight of evidence gathered during several decades using diverse samples
and methodologies” demonstrates “that there is no systemic difference between
gay and non-gay parents in emotional health, parenting skills, and attitudes towards
parenting.”); Stacey & Biblarz, supra, at 176 (“Scores for [lesbian and gay]
parenting styles and levels of investment in children are at least as ‘high’ as those
for heterosexual parents.”).4
Therefore, specifically in the context of same-sex parents, it is clear
that the absence of a biological or adoptive link between a parent and a child does
not affect the quality of their relationship. See, e.g., Fiona Tasker, Lesbian
4 A recent report by the American Academy of Pediatrics that surveyed “more than 30 years of
research” found that “[a] large body of scientific literature demonstrates that children and
adolescents who grow up with gay and/or lesbian parents fare as well in emotional, cognitive,
social, and sexual functioning as do children whose parents are heterosexual.” Am. Acad. of
Pediatrics, Technical Report: Promoting the Well-Being of Children Whose Parents Are Gay or
Lesbian, 131 PEDIATRICS e1374, e1374, e1377 (2013).
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Mothers, Gay Fathers, and Their Children: A Review, 26 Dev. & Behav.
Pediatrics 224, 230 (2005) (“[D]ata have revealed no differences between children
in lesbian-led and children in heterosexual families in terms of the warmth of the
child’s relationship with their non-biological mother or father.”); Stacey & Biblarz,
supra, at 175 (“[W]omen in every category—heterosexual birth mother, lesbian
birth mother, non-biological lesbian social mother—all score about the same” on
“measures having to do with the care of children.”); Anne Brewaeys et al., Donor
Insemination: Child Development and Family Functioning in Lesbian Mother
Families, 12 Human Reprod. 1349, 1354 (1997) (“Among the lesbian mothers, the
quality of the parent-child interaction did not differ significantly between the
biological and the [non-biological] mother.”).
Consistent with this overwhelming body of scientific research and
literature demonstrating that the children of same-sex relationships develop
attachments to their non-biological, non-adoptive parents, the Second Department
correctly concluded that Estrellita had standing to pursue custody and visitation
despite her lack of a biological or adoptive connection to the child. In contrast, the
Fourth Department’s conclusion—that Brooke did not have standing to pursue
custody and visitation, and therefore could not present evidence of her parental
bond with her child, simply because “a non-biological, non-adoptive parent does
not have standing” to seek custody or visitation—was plainly contrary to this
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research and literature. Despite their lack of a biological or adoptive connection
with the children, both Brooke and Estrellita were fully capable of establishing
strong, healthy attachment relationships with the children.
III. Terminating the Children’s Attachment Relationships with
Brooke S.B. and Estrellita A. Would Result in Emotional Harm to
the Children
The preservation of the parent-child attachment relationship is
essential to a child’s healthy development and overall well-being. See, e.g.,
Goldstein et al., supra, at 19-20 (explaining that “[c]ontinuity of relationships is
essential for a child’s healthy development”); Am. Acad. of Pediatrics,
Developmental Issues for Young Children in Foster Care, 106 Pediatrics 1145,
1145 (2000) (children’s “need for continuity with their primary attachment
figures” is “paramount”).
When a child’s attachment relationship with his or her parent is cut,
the harm can be dramatic. For instance, “[i]t is known that emotional and cognitive
disruptions in the early lives of children have the potential to impair brain
development.” Id.; see also Bruce D. Perry et al., Childhood Trauma, the
Neurobiology of Adaptation, and “Use-dependent” Development of the Brain:
How “States” Become “Traits”, 16 Infant Mental Health J. 271 (1995). From a
psychological perspective, the disruption of an attachment relationship can lead a
child to question its assumptions about the world, including “whether he or she can
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count on the availability of any parent.” William F. Hodges, Interventions for
Children of Divorce: Custody, Access, and Psychotherapy 8 (2d ed. 1991).
Indeed, a child may even “conclude that a parent’s absence is due to their own
unlovability. Thus, abandonment by a non-custodial parent is a particularly
devastating experience.” Id at 9.
Moreover, when a child’s attachment relationships are terminated, the
child may become vulnerable to serious behavioral problems. Nat’l Research
Council & Inst. of Med, supra, at 265 (“[A]ttachments buffer young children
against the development of serious behavior problems, in part by strengthening the
human connections and providing the structure and monitoring that curb violent or
aggressive tendencies.”). In particular, disrupting an attachment can lead to
anxiety, aggression, academic problems, and elevated psychopathology. See, e.g.,
Marty, supra, at 274; Byrne, supra, at 118. Other problems linked to disrupted
attachment include “hiding or hoarding food, excessive eating (polyphagia) or
drinking (polydipsia), rumination, self-stimulating and repetitive behaviors . . .,
and sleep disturbance.” Mark D. Simms et al., Health Care Needs of Children in
the Foster Care System, 106 Pediatrics 909, 912 (2000).
Disruption of a parental attachment bond can also cause severe harm
to the child’s ability to form new attachment bonds. When a child’s assumption
that he can depend on both parents “proves incorrect, a child may question many
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other assumptions about the world; for example, whether he or she can count on
the availability of any parent…[leading to] insecure or avoidant attachment [in
future relationships], interference with healthy object relations, and reorganization
of cognitive understandings.” Hodges, supra, at 8-9.
Research demonstrates that a child experiences the same “extreme
distress” from termination of an attachment relationship even where there is no
biological or adoptive connection to the parent—including in cases of same-sex
parents. See, e.g., Fiona L. Tasker & Susan Golombok, Growing Up in a Lesbian
Family: Effects on Child Development 12 (1997) (“[R]emoving children whose
biological mother has died from their sole surviving parent can cause extreme
distress, as can the severance of bonds between children and their non-biological
mother when the partners break up.”); Yvon Gauthier et al., Clinical Application of
Attachment Theory in Permanency Planning for Children in Foster Care: The
Importance of Continuity of Care, 25 Infant Mental Health J. 379, 394 (2004)
(explaining that children suffer greatly when separated from non-biological parent
figures).
Assuming as true that Estrellita and Brooke developed parent-child
attachment relationships with the children they helped to raise, then the termination
of those relationships may cause long-lasting neurological, psychological, social,
and behavioral harm to the children, regardless of biological or adoptive ties. To
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preserve the best interests of the child, the family court should have the ability to
weigh this harm when evaluating custody and visitation issues.
IV. The Children’s Health and Welfare Are Best Served by Nurturing
and Maintaining Their Relationships with Brooke S.B. and
Estrellita A. as Well as Their Biological Mothers
As one might expect in light of the extensive literature confirming that
parent-child attachment relationships improve the overall welfare of children,
researchers believe that children generally benefit from continued contact with
both of their parents. See, e.g., Michael E. Lamb, Placing Children’s Interests
First: Developmentally Appropriate Parenting Plans, 10 Va. J. Soc. Pol’y & L.
98, 103, 113-14 (2002) (describing research findings that everyday activities with
both parents promote and maintain trust and confidence in the parents, while
strengthening child-parent attachments); Denise Donnelly & David Finkelhor,
Does Equality in Custody Arrangement Improve Parent-Child Relationship?, 54 J.
Marriage & Fam. 837, 838 (1992) (“Children who maintain contact with both
parents tend to be better adjusted.”).5
The findings are no different for children of same-sex parenting
relationships. Thus, as one prominent researcher has explained, when same-sex
5 See also Kimberly A. Faust & Jerome N. McKibben, Marital Dissolution: Divorce,
Separation, Annulment, and Widowhood, Handbook of Marriage and the Family 475, 491
(2d ed. 1999) (“children feel more secure and less harmed by the fear of losing the
non-custodial parent” in joint custody arrangements).
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parents who have jointly raised a child since birth decide to separate, “it is
reasonable to expect that the best interests of the child will be served by preserving
the continuity and stability of the child’s relationship with both parents.” Charlotte
J. Patterson, Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents, 63 Child Dev. 1025, 1037
(1992); see also Am. Acad. of Pediatrics, Policy Statement: Coparent or
Second-Parent Adoption by Same-Sex Parents, 109 Pediatrics 339, 339 (2002)
(explaining that non-biological, same-sex parents’ rights should be recognized so
that their children may “enjoy[] the psychological and legal security that comes
from having two willing, capable, and loving parents”).
Additionally, and not surprisingly, empirical experience confirms that
children benefit greatly from stable financial support. In fact, “[o]ne of the most
consistent associations in developmental science is between economic hardship
and compromised child development.” Nat’l Research Council & Inst. of Med.,
supra, at 275.6 Thus, depriving a child of a second parent’s financial support limits
the resources available to the child and causes greater financial insecurity.
Therefore, when determining the best interests of a child, it is
appropriate for a court to consider the psychological and economic advantages of
6 See also, e.g., Sanders Korenman et al., Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the
United States: Results from the NLSY, 17 Children of Youth Services Rev. 127 (1996) (finding
substantial developmental deficits among children who, on average, are poor over a number of
years relative to those who are not); Jane D. McLeod et al., Trajectories of Poverty and
Children’s Mental Health, 37 J. Health & Soc. Behav. 207 (1996) (concluding that people with
childhood histories of poverty had higher levels of depression and antisocial behavior).
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the child maintaining relationships with both of his or her parents. Here, the
Second Department’s conclusion that Estrellita had standing to pursue custody and
visitation meant that the Family Court could properly weigh these benefits.
However, the Fourth Department’s conclusion that Brooke did not have standing
by virtue of her status as a non-biological, non-adoptive parent precluded the
Family Court from considering these advantages.
CONCLUSION
Comprehensive psychological, medical, and sociological research
demonstrates that the most significant benefits of parent-child relationships come
from the enduring reciprocal bonds between children and their caregivers, and that
breaking these bonds may cause serious harm to the children. The research
likewise confirms that the formation and maintenance of these attachments can
occur regardless of biology, adoption or whether the parents are in a same-sex
relationship.
Accordingly, to ensure that it acts in the best interest of the children in
these cases and children throughout the state of New York, this Court should
confirm that Estrellita and Brooke have standing to prove that they have
attachment relationships with the children and accordingly uphold the
Second Department's Order of December 24, 2014 and reverse the Fourth
Department's Order of June 19, 2015.
Dated: New York, NY
March 18,2016
Respectfully submitted,
CLEARY liLIEB TEE~ & HAMILTON LLP
By: { /)
Carthlut(D. Bo ~zzi
Daniel D. Queen
One Liberty Plaza
New York, New York 10006
(212) 225-2000
Counsel for Amici Curiae National Association of
Social Workers, National Association of Social
Workers' New York State Chapter, and National
Association of Social Workers' New York City Chapter
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