GILLETTE COMPANY v. FRANCHISE TAX BOARD

Appellants’ Request for Judicial Notice

Cal.January 22, 2014

IN THE SUPREME COURTOF THE STATEOF CALIFORNIA THE GILLETTE COMPANY & SUBSIDIARIES, Plaintiffs and Appellants, Case No. S206587 Vv. CALIFORNIA FRANCHISE TAX BOARD,an Agencyofthe State of California, Defendant and Respondent. SUPREME COURT FILGw 1) The Procter & Gamble Manufacturing Co.v. JAN 92 2014 Franchise Tax Board, CGC-10-495912 2) Kimberly-Clark Worldwide, Inc. & Subsidiaries et al. v. Franchise Tax Board, CGC-10-495916 3) Sigma-Aldrich, Inc. v. Franchise Tax Board, ———————"Beputy CGC-10-496437 4) RB Holdings (USA) Inc. v. Franchise Tax Board, CGC-10-496438 5) Jones Apparel Groupv. Franchise Tax Board, CGC-10-499083 First Appellate District, Division Four, Case No. A130803 San Francisco County Superior Court, Honorable Richard A. Kramer Case No. CGC-10-495911 (and consolidated caseslisted above) Consolidated with the following cases: Frank A. Metsuire Cl erk PLAINTIFFS/APPELLANTS’ SECOND MOTION FOR JUDICIAL NOTICE SILVERSTEIN & POMERANTZ LLP AMYL. SILVERSTEIN(Bar No. 154221) EDWIN P. ANTOLIN(Bar No. 172599) JOHANNA W. ROBERTS(Bar No. 191472) 3833 18" Street San Francisco, CA 94114 Telephone: (415) 593-3500 Facsimile: (415) 593-3501 Attorneys for Plaintiffs and Appellants The Gillette Company & Subsidiaries, The Procter & Gamble Manufacturing Co., Kimberly-Clark Worldwide, Inc. & Subsidiaries, et al., Sigma-Aldrich, Inc., RB Holdings (USA)Inc., and Jones Apparel Group To the Honorable ChiefJustice andAssociate Justices ofthe Supreme Court ofthe State of California: Please take notice that, pursuant to California Rules of Court 8.520 and 8.252 and California Evidence Code sections 452(c) & (h), and 459, Plaintiffs and Appellants The Gillette Company & Subsidiaries, et al., hereby movethis Courtto take judicial notice for the purposes of this appeal, of the following documents, true and correct copies of which are attached as Exhibits T and U to this Motion for Judicial Notice: 1. Excerpts from Caroline Broun,et al., The Evolving Use and Changing Role ofInterstate Compacts, (ABA 2006). A true and correct copy of the excerpted pagesis attached as Ex.T. 2. Document prepared by the Council on State Governments-- National Center for Interstate Compacts, Interstate Compacts vs. Uniform Laws. A true and correct copy of this document is attached as Ex. U;it is also available online at http://www.cglg.org/projects/water/compacteducation/compa cts_vs_uniform_laws--csgncic.pdf. These documents are attached to this motion as required by Rule 8.252 ofthe California Rules of Court. These matters do notrelate to proceedings occurring after the judgmentthatis the subject of this appeal. The motion is based on the following memorandum. MEMORANDUM Under Evidence Code Section 459, subdivision(a), a reviewing court may take judicial notice of any matter specified in Evidence Code Section 452. Evidence Code Section 452 providesthat judicial notice may be takenof “official acts of the legislative, executive, and judicial departments of the United States and of any state of the United States,” and of “facts and propositions that are not reasonably subject to dispute andare capable of immediate and accurate determination by resort to sources of reasonably indisputable accuracy.” Evid. Code § 452(c) and (h). The documents described above and attachedheretofall into these categories; therefore, judicial notice is proper as to each of these documents. These documents were not submitted in the proceedings below. Each documentis relevant to this appeal in that they are sources cited by the parties and/or amici in the briefing. The Broun bookis a treatise on interstate compact law which hasbeen cited extensively by the parties and amici. Plaintiffs have attached copiesof all pages cited in the briefing by the parties and amiciin this appeal. Sumilarly, the document prepared by the Council of State Governments — National Centerfor Interstate Compacts is a brief paper comparing interstate compacts and uniform laws. This documenthas been cited by the Multistate Tax Commission. Commission’s Br. at 8 n. 26. Because these documents may notbereadily available, Plaintiffs are providing the copies of the cited documents for the convenienceofthis Court. Both of these documents are proper subjects of judicial notice as “facts and propositions that are not reasonably subject to dispute and are 2 capable of immediate and accurate determination by resort to sources of reasonably indisputable accuracy.” Evid. Code § 452(h); see also Judicial Council Comment(“Subdivision (h) provides for judicial notice of indisputable facts immediately ascertainable by reference to sources of reasonably indisputable accuracy. In other words, the facts need not be actually knownif they are readily ascertainable and indisputable. Sources of "reasonably indisputable accuracy" include notonly treatises, encyclopedias, almanacs, andthe like, but also persons learnedin the subject matter.”). In addition, the Council of State Government documentis a proper subject of judicial notice as public records and official acts of the legislative departments of anystate of the United States and/orofficial acts of a public agency. Evid. Code § 452(c). The Council of State Governments is a non- profit organization that supports state governments, is fundedbystate governments and headed bya state governor. Therefore, documents produced by the Council on State Governments are proper subjects for judicial notice under California law. In re Crockett, 159 Cal. App. 4th 751, 762 n. 6 (2008) (taking judicial notice of actions of Council of State Governments); People v. Brooks, 189 Cal. App. 3d 866, 873-874 (1987) (referring to Council on State Governmentslegislative history to interpret the Interstate Agreement on Detainers). Forthe reasonsstated above, Plaintiffs respectfully requests that this Court take judicial notice of the foregoing documents pursuant to Evidence Code sections 452 and 459. DATED:January 22, 2014 Respectfully submitted, Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP By 7 AmyL. Silverstein Attorneysfor Plaintiffs and Appellants The Gillette Company & Subsidiaries The Procter & Gamble Manufacturing Co. Kimberly-Clark Worldwide, Inc. & Subsidiariesetal. Sigma-Aldrich,Inc. RB Holdings (USA) Inc. Jones Apparel Group [Proposed] ORDER TAKING JUDICIAL NOTICE OF TREATISE AND DOCUMENT PRODUCED BY THE COUNCIL OF STATE GOVERNMENTS Goodcause appearing, IT IS HEREBY ORDEREDthatthe Motion Requesting Judicial Notice is granted. IT IS ORDEREDthat this Court shall take judicial notice of the following: , 1. Excerpts from Caroline Broun,et al., The Evolving Use and Changing Role ofInterstate Compacts, (ABA 2006). 2. Document prepared by the Council on State Governments-- National Center for Interstate Compacts, Interstate Compacts vs. Uniform Laws. Dated: Chief Justice T h e Ev ol vi ng U s e a n d th e C h a n g i n g Ro le of In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s A Pr ac ti ti on er 's G u i d e Ca ro li ne N. B r o u n M i c h a e l L. B u e n g e r M i c h a e l H. M c C a b e Ri ch ar d L. Ma st er s F B N A M E R I C A N B A R A S S O C I A T I O N D e f e n d i n g Li be rt y Pu rs ui ng Ju st ic e Bteiesenmcers aun ae. A B O U T T H E A U T H O R S M i c h a e l L. B u e n g e r cu rr en tl y se rv es as th e st at e co ur ts ad mi ni st ra to r fo r Mi ss ou ri . H e re ce iv ed hi s B. A. , c u m la ud e, fr om th e Un iv er si ty of Da y- to n in 19 83 an d hi s J. D. , c u m la ud e, fr om St . Lo ui s Un iv er si ty Sc ho ol of L a w in 19 89 , w h e r e h e w a s a W h i t e F e l l o w fo r L a w a n d P u b l i c Po li cy . M r . B u e n g e r h a s al so s e r v e d as th e st at e co ur t ad mi ni st ra to r o f S o u t h D a k o t a , as an ad ju nc t pr of es so ro f po li ti ca l sc ie nc e at th e Un iv er si ty of Da yt on , an in - st ru ct or fo r th e O h i o Ju di ci al Co ll eg e, a la w cl er k fo r th e Co ur t of Ap pe al s of Oh io , a n d as th e ad mi ni st ra to r an d le ga l co un se l fo r a co ur t of ap pe al s di st ri ct in Oh io . H e w a s a m e m b e r o f t h e te am st h a t wr ot e th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t f o r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n, th e n e w In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ju ve ni le s, w h i c h is cu rr en tl y un de r co ns id er at io n b y st at e le gi sl at ur es ; an d, m o s t re ce nt ly , th e pr op os ed re vi se d In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r th e Pl ac em en t of Ch il dr en . H e ha s w o r k e d ex te ns iv el y wi th th e In te rs ta te C o m m i s s i o n fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su - pe rv is io n, pr ov id in g tr ai ni ng an d le ga l co ns ul ti ng se rv ic es o n va ri et y of ma t- te rs re la te d to th ei r co mp ac t. H e ha s se rv ed as pr es id en t of th e na ti on al Co nf er en ce of St at e Co ur t Ad mi ni st ra to rs an d vi ce -c ha ir pe rs on of th e B o a r d of Di re ct or s of th e Na ti on al Ce nt er fo r St at e Co ur ts . In ad di ti on , h e se rv es on th e bo ar d of ad vi so rs fo r th e Na ti on al Ce nt er fo r In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s a n d th e ed it or ia l bo ar d of th e Ju st ic e Sy st em Jo ur na l. H e al so se rv ed o n th e A m e r i c a n B a r As so ci at io n’ s 2 0 0 4 C o m m i s s i o n o n St at e Co ur t Fu nd in g. Mr . B u e n g e r ha s wr it te n a n d pu bl is he d in th e ar ea s of ap pe ll at e pr ac ti ce a n d pr oc ed ur e, co ur t m a n a g e m e n t , th e l a w o f in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s , fe de ra li sm , j u d i c i a l in de - pe nd en ce , an d co ur t fu nd in g. R i c h a r d L . ( R i c k ) M a s t e r s i s g e n e r a l co un se l t o th e In te rs ta te C o m m i s - si on fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n, an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t a g e n c y c o m p o s e d o f al l 5 0 st at es a n d te rr it or ie s, w h i c h is af fi li at ed w i t h th e C o u n c i l o f St at e G o v e r n m e n t s ( C S G ) in L e x i n g t o n , K e n t u c k y . H e r e c e i v e d hi s B . A . d e g r e e f r o m A s b u r y Co ll eg e in 19 76 an d hi s J. D. f r o m th e Lo ui s D . Br an de is Sc ho ol o f L a w o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f Lo ui sv il le in 19 79 . H e w a s as si st an t at to rn ey g e n e r a l fo r th e C o m m o n w e a l t h of K e n t u c k y un ti l 19 82 , af te r w h i c h h e s e r v e d as ge ne ra l co un se l fo r CS Ga t it s na ti on al of fi ce in Le xi ng to n. Mr . Ma st er s is an ad ju nc t pr of es so r of bu si ne ss re gu la ti on an d c o m m e r c i a l la w at A s b u r y Co ll eg e an d N o r t h w o o d Un iv er si ty a n d is a m e m b e r o f a l a w fi rm in Lo ui s- vi ll e, K e n t u c k y . H e ha s wr it te n a n d s p o k e n ex te ns iv el y o n th e su bj ec t o f in te rs ta te co mp ac ts , in cl ud in g th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su - xi li Xi V A b o u t th e A u t h o r s pe rv is io n, fo r w h i c h h e w a s th e pr in ci pa l d r a f t s m a n . H e w o r k e d w i t h C S G an d th e Na ti on al H i g h w a y Tr af fi c Sa fe ty Ad mi ni st ra ti on in th e ea rl y 19 80 s to am en dt h e Dr iv er Li ce ns e C o m p a c t an d i s cu rr en tl y a C S G le ga l co ns ul ta nt wi th th e Un it ed St at es De pa rt me nt o f Ju st ic e/ Of fi ce of Ju ve ni le Ju st ic e an d D e l i n q u e n c y Pr ev en ti on fo r th e pu rp os e of a m e n d i n g th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ju ve ni le s. In ad di ti on , Mr . Ma st er s co nt in ue s to be in vo lv ed in co ns ul ta - ti on , re se ar ch , an d wr it in g co nc er ni ng in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s a n d co ns ti tu ti on al la w is su es , m o s t re ce nt ly su pe rv is in g th e dr af ti ng of th e n e w In te rs ta te C o m - pa ct fo r th e P l a c e m e n t of Ch il dr en . M i c h a e l H . M c C a b e c u r r e n t l y se rv es as th e di re ct or of th e M i d w e s t e r n Of fi ce of th e Co un ci l of St at e G o v e r n m e n t s (C SG ), a na ti on al , no np ar ti sa n as so ci at io n of st at e of fi ci al s re pr es en ti ng al l th re e br an ch es of s t a t e go ve rn - me nt i n al l 5 0 st at es an d th e U. S. te rr it or ie s. H e re ce iv ed hi s ba ch el or ’s de - gr ee f r o m I o w a St at e Un iv er si ty in 19 81 an d hi s J. D. f r o m th e Un iv er si ty of Il li no is in 19 84 . Fo ll ow in g a br ie f st in t wi th a pr iv at e la w fi rm , Mr . M c C a b e j o i n e d C S G in 1 9 8 5 , s e r v i n g fi rs t as a po li cy an al ys t a n d st af f at to rn ey a n d la te r as as si st an t di re ct or of C S G ’ s M i d w e s t e r n Of fi ce . In hi s cu rr en tr o l e as di re ct or , M r . M c C a b e o v e r s e e s t h e ef fo rt s o f a 1 2 - m e m b e r t e a m th at p r o v i d e s re se ar ch a n d st af f su pp or t se rv ic es to se ve ra l gr ou ps o f s t a t e of fi ci al s, in cl ud -. in g th e M i d w e s t e r n Le gi sl at iv e Co nf er en ce an d th e M i d w e s t e r n Go ve rn or s’ As so ci at io n. H e w a s a ch ar te r m e m b e r of th e Po li cy Co ns en su s In it ia ti ve B o a r d of Di re ct or s a n d se rv ed as c ha i r ma n of th e Ja ne A d d a m s Re so ur ce Co rp or at io n, a c o m m u n i t y de ve lo pm en t or ga ni za ti on in Ch ic ag o. O v e r th e ye ar s, Mr . M c C a b e ha s pr ov id ed dr af ti ng an d co ns ul ti ng as si st an ce in co n- ne ct io n wi th se ve ra l in te rs ta te co mp ac ts , in cl ud in g th e In te rs ta te Ag ri cu lt ur al Gr ai n M a r k e t i n g C o m p a c t , th e M i d w e s t e r n Hi gh er Ed uc at io n C o m p a c t , th e In te rs ta te In su ra nc e Re ce iv er sh ip C o m p a c t , th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n Me nt al He al th , a n d th e M i d w e s t I n t e r s t a t e P a s s e n g e r R a i l C o m p a c t . M o r e re ce nt ly , h e pa rt ic ip at ed in th e de ve lo pm en t o f th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of - fe nd er Su pe rv is io n an d th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ju ve ni le s. C a r o l i n e N . B r o u n i s a n at to rn ey li ce ns ed in Ca li fo rn ia , M i s s o u r i , a n d Oh io . S h e re ce iv ed he r B. S. wi th hi gh es t ho no rs f t o m th e Un iv er si ty of Il li - n o i s ~ U r b a n a a n d h e r J. D. , m a g n a c u m la ud e, f r o m St . L o u i s U n i v e r s i t y S c h o o l of La w. M s . B r o u n w a s en vi ro nm en ta l in ho us e co un se l fo r an in te rn at io na l co ns um er p r o d u c t s c o m p a n y . S h e ha s pr ac ti ce d la w wi th bo th l a r g e a n d sm al l l a w fi rm s an d ha s cl er ke d wi th th e Mi ss ou ri S u p r e m e Co ur t. S h e ha s pu b- li sh ed in th e ar ea of en vi ro nm en ta l la w an d wr ot e th e To xi c To rt s Pr ac ti ce Gu id e, R C R A an d Su pe rf un d: A Pr ac ti ce Gu id e (3 rd Ed it io n) an d Su pe rf un d L a w a n d P r o c e d u r e fo r W e s t pu bl ic at io ns . cernun- I N T R O D U C T I O N Un li ke th e f e w ot he r w o r k s th at ad dr es s in te rs ta te co mp ac ts , th is w o r k w a s de ve lo pe d wi th a bi as to wa rd th e pr ac ti ti on er —n ot on ly th e at to rn ey w h o m a y fa ce li ti ga ti ng ma tt er s co nt ro ll ed by a co mp ac t b u t a l s o ot he rs w h o ar e in vo lv ed in th e dr af ti ng , m a n a g e m e n t , an d im pl em en ta ti on of su ch ag re e- me nt s. W h i l e ne ce ss ar il y th eo re ti ca l, it se ek s al so to pr ov id e pr ac ti ca l gu id - an ce to th os e w h o fi nd th em se lv es de al in g wi th ma tt er s co nt ro ll ed b y in te rs ta te co mp ac ts an d pa rt ic ul ar ly th e ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag en ci es th at m a y b e ch ar ge d wi th ov er se ei ng a co mp ac t. In th e U n i t e d St at es , th e cr ea ti on o f g o v e r n m e n t st ru ct ur es is a d y n a m i c pr oc es s; a fu nc ti on la rg el y of m a n a g i n g a va st ar ra y of fe de ra l a n d st at e re la ti on sh ip s th at ar e e v e r - c h a n g i n g . M a n a g i n g t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s is in he r- en tl y co mp li ca te d gi ve n th e fe de ra l st ru ct ur e of go ve rn me nt i n wh ic h, at a th eo re ti ca l a n d pr ac ti ca l le ve l, t w o s o v e r e i g n en ti ti es c o o p e r a t e , c o m p e t e , co mp le me nt , an d a t ti me s co nf li ct wi th o n e an ot he ri n fa sh io ni ng a n d im pl e- me nt in g pu bl ic po li cy . O v e r th e ye ar s, m a n y sc ho la rl y a n d pr ac ti ca l w o r k s ha ve be en de vo te d to ex pl or in g th e re la ti on sh ip b e t w e e n th e st at es an d fe d- er al go ve rn me nt . Se em in gl y li tt le ha s be en de di ca te d to ex pl or in g th e m a n - a g e m e n t of fo rm al re la ti on sh ip s b e t w e e n th es t a t e s , a cr it ic al bu t la rg el y ov er lo ok ed el em en to f fe de ra li sm . T h e g r o w t h of fe de ra l p o w e r a n d th e em er - ge nc e of la rg e na ti on al in st it ut io ns of go ve rn me nt i n th e la st ce nt ur y h a v e ec li ps ed di sc us si on so n s t a t e re la ti on s, a n d pa rt ic ul ar ly h o w st at es m a n a g e th ei r fo rm al re la ti on sh ip s ov er ma tt er s th at ar e mu lt il at er al in na tu re . H o w th es e in te rs ta te re la ti on s ar e m a n a g e d c a n ha ve si gn if ic an t, lo ng -t er m co ns e- q u e n c e s . T a k e , fo r e x a m p l e , th e In te rs ta te A g r e e m e n t o n De ta in er s, th e W a s h - in gt on Me tr op ol it an A r e a Tr an si t Re gu la ti on C o m p a c t , th e C o l u m b i a Ri ve r G o r g e C o m p a c t , th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r A d u l t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n, th e T a h o e Re gi on al Pl an ni ng C o m p a c t , or th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n th e Pl ac e- me nt o f Ch il dr en . E a c h of th es e fo rm al st at e- to -s ta te ag re em en ts go ve rn s no t on ly st at e re la ti on sh ip s bu t, eq ua ll y im po rt an t, pr ov id es se rv ic es to an d/ or co nt ro ls th e ac ti on s of in di vi du al ci ti ze ns . Ad di ti on al ly , in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ar e pe rh ap st h e on ly ex ce pt io n to th e la rg el y he ld vi ew th at on es t a t e le gi sl a- tu re ca nn ot bi nd it s su cc es so rs in lo ng -t er m, ev en ir re vo ca bl e ag re em en ts pe rt ai ni ng to st at e af fa ir s. X V X v i I n t r o d u c t i o n T h r o u g h o u t th e hi st or y of th e Un it ed St at es , in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ha ve se rv ed an im po rt an t— al be it la rg el y u n n o t i c e d — r o l e in sh ap in g re la ti on sh ip s b e t w e e n th e st at es an d, at ti me s, be tw ee n t h e st at es a n d th e fe de ra l go ve rn - m e n t . In th es t r i c t e s t se ns e, in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s vi ol at e tr ad it io na l n o t i o n s o f fe de ra li sm b y en ab li ng st at es to cr ea te su pr a- st at e, su b- fe de ra l ag re em en ts th at ar e as bi nd in g on t h e st at es a s if th e st at es we re ac ti ng as tr ue in de pe nd en t so ve re ig ns ad op ti ng a tr ea ty . In te rs ta te c o m p a c t s al lo w fo r an ci ll ar y an d al - te rn at iv e go ve rn in g m e c h a n i s m s an d cr ea te re gu la to ry s c h e m e s th at ex is t la rg el y in de pe nd en t of in di vi du al st at e co nt ro l an d fe de ra l ov er si gh t. T h e s e m e c h a n i s m s , wh il e cr ea te d by th e m e m b e r st at es , ar e no t su bj ec t to co nt ro l b y an y si ng le st at e. Al th ou gh in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ha ve lo ng be en us ed in th e Un it ed St at es , th ei r us e as on go in g go ve rn in g m e c h a n i s m s ha s be en a de ve lo pm en t o f th e tw en ti et h ce nt ur y, e v i d e n c e d b y th e e m e r g e n c e of th e so -c al le d “r eg ul at or y, ” “a dm in is tr at iv e” or “ m a n a g e m e n t ” co mp ac t. Pr io r to th e tw en ti et h ce nt ur y, in te rs ta te co mp ac ts we re us ed al mo st ex cl us iv el y to se tt le bo un da ry di sp ut es or ad ju st ju ri sd ic ti on al li ne s. In m o r e re ce nt ti me s, ho we ve r, in te rs ta te co mp ac ts ha ve b e e n us ed no t so mu ch t o re so lv e bo un da ry di sp ut es bu t ra th er to m a n a g e a w i d e ar ra y of mu lt is ta te ma tt er s. Th is , in tu rn , ha s le d to th e cr ea ti on of in te rs ta te ad mi ni st ra ti ve an d re gu la to ry bo di es wi th sp ec if ic su bj ec t ma tt er co n- tr ol an d sp ec if ic m a n a g e m e n t re sp on si bi li ty —f or ex am pl e, t h e In te rs ta te C o m - mi ss io n o n Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n, th e De la wa re Ri ve r Po rt Au th or it y, th e O h i o Ri ve r Va ll ey Sa ni ta ti on C o m m i s s i o n , th e C o l u m b i a Ri ve r G o r g e C o m - mi ss io n, th e T a h o e Re gi on al P l a n n i n g Ag en cy , an d, pe rh ap s m o s t no ta bl e a m o n g in te rs ta te c o m p a c t ag en ci es , th e Po rt Au th or it y of N e w Y o r k - N e w Je rs ey . S o m e co mp ac t- cr ea te d en ti ti es su ch as th e W a s h i n g t o n Me tr op ol it an A r e a Tr an si t C o m m i s s i o n an d th e In te rs ta te C o m m i s s i o n fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n ar e tr ul y re gu la to ry ag en ci es , pr om ul ga ti ng ad mi ni st ra ti ve ru le s an d re gu la - ti on s a n d ta ki ng en fo rc em en t ac ti on s as on e of th ei r ma jo r fu nc ti on s. Ot he r co mp ac t- cr ea te d en ti ti es su ch as th e Po rt Au th or it y of N e w Y o r k — N e w Je rs ey a n d th e M e t r o p o l i t a n W a s h i n g t o n Ai rp or ts A u t h o r i t y ar e m o r e th an re gu la to ry ag en ci es , en co mp as si ng wi th in th ei r sp he re of au th or it y no t on ly re gu la ti on bu t, m o r e im po rt an t, th e de ve lo pm en t an d m a n a g e m e n t of ma jo r g o v e r n m e n - ta l op er at io ns . A l t h o u g h c o m p a c t s h a v e b e e n us ed t o se tt le la nd cl ai ms b e t w e e n th e st at es as re ce nt ly as 19 99 ,' to da y th ey ar e mo re o f t e n us ed to de al wi th wi de - 1. Se e, e. g. , M i s s o u r i - N e b r a s k a B o u n d a r y C o m p a c t , P u b . L. N o . 1 0 6 - 1 0 1 , 1 1 3 St at . 1 3 3 3 ( 1 9 9 9 ) . In a d d i t i o n to se tt li ng th e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n th es t a t e s d u e to th e sh if ti ng c h a n n e l o f th e M i s s o u r i Ri ve r, th e c o m p a c t al so se tt le s is su es ere res5S AcJitreDtBeROSARLAae i T h e Ev ol vi ng U s e a n d th e C h a n g i n g Ro le of In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s —_ Xv il ra ng in g re gi on al an d na ti on al pr ob le ms . T h e is su es st at es se ek to m a n a g e t h r o u g h c o m p a c t s in vo lv e s u c h di ve rs e ma tt er s as w a t e r - r e s o u r c e m a n a g e - me nt , po ll ut io n co nt ro l, re gi on al e c o n o m i c de ve lo pm en t, cr im e co nt ro l, ch il d we lf ar e, ed uc at io n, e m e r g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t , wa st e di sp os al , a n d so fo rt h. Ar gu ab ly , an y ma tt er be tw ee n t w o or mo re s t a t e s th at is “s up ra -s ta te , su b- fe de ra l” in na tu re ca n b e c o m e th e su bj ec t of an in te rs ta te co mp ac t. As J u s t i c e Fe li x Fr an kf ur te r o n c e ob se rv ed , “ T h e c o m b i n e d le gi sl at iv e p o w e r s of C o n - gr es s an d th e se ve ra l St at es pe rm it a w i d e ra ng e of pe rm ut at io ns an d c o m b i - na ti on s fo r go ve rn me nt al ac ti on . . . . Po li ti ca l en er gy ha s b e e n e x p e n d e d o n st er il e co nt ro ve rs y ov er su pp os ed ly ex cl us iv e al te rn at iv es in st ea d of ut il iz ed fo r fa sh io ni ng n e w i n s t r u m e n t s a d a p t e d to n e w Si tu at io ns .” A t n o t i m e h a s th e us e of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts b e e n e m p l o y e d m o r e in fa sh io ni ng “ n e w in - st ru me nt s” th an in th e la te tw en ti et h an d ea rl y tw en ty -f ir st ce nt ur ie s. T h e n e w m i l l e n n i u m e v i d e n c e s a g r o w i n g in te re st in th e u s e o f in te rs ta te c o m - pa ct s to re so lv e se ri ou s mu lt is ta te ma tt er s ra ng in g fr om cr im et o ch il d pr o- te ct io n, to wa te r m a n a g e m e n t , to re gi on al tr an sp or ta ti on a n d e c o n o m i c de ve lo pm en t ma tt er s. Al th ou gh co mp ac ts ha ve e m e r g e d in re ce nt ye ar s as ef fe ct iv e an d vi ta l go ve rn in gt oo ls , t h e st ud y of co mp ac ts ha s be en li mi te d to a re la ti ve ly sm al l gr ou po f pe op le . Ve ry li tt le le ga l or po li ti ca l li te ra tu re ha s be en de di ca te d to th e su bj ec t ma tt er , no tw it hs ta nd in g th e st at es ’ in cr ea si ng re li an ce o n c o m - pa ct s to m a n a g e ma ny p r e s s i n g na ti on al an d re gi on al is su es . Ad di ti on al ly , wi th m a n y co mp ac ts cr ea ti ng ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag en ci es th at ar e ne it he r fe de ra l in na tu re no r st at e in sc op e, an en ti re ly n e w ar ea of ad mi ni st ra ti ve an d re gu - la to ry la w m a y be em er gi ng , al be it in an ad ho c, qu ie t, no n- sy st em at ic m a n - ne r. A s a re su lt , th er e is a ne ed fo r a re ex am in at io n of th e la w of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts , a n d pa rt ic ul ar ly wi th re ga rd to th e d e v e l o p m e n t of su pr a- st at e ad mi ni st ra ti ve an d re gu la to ry ag en ci es . Th is b o o k se ek st o fi ll th e ex is ti ng vo id in th is e m e r g i n g ar ea of la w b y ad dr es si ng bo th th e th eo re ti ca l pr in ci pl es be hi nd in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s a n d th e ve ry pr ac ti ca l im pl ic at io ns of op er at in g in th e c o m p a c t en vi ro nm en t. It is in te nd ed to se rv e no t on ly as a re fe re nc e fo r la wy er s, bu t al so as a pr ac ti ca l gu id e fo r le gi sl at or s, dr af te rs , c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra to rs , st ud en ts , an d ot he r re la ti ng to cr im in al an d ci vi l ju ri sd ic ti on s b e t w e e n th e re sp ec ti ve st at e co ur ts , c o m p e t i n g cl ai ms of st at e so ve re ig nt y ov er di sp ut ed la nd s, ta xe s, ti tl e to la nd , a n d ri pa ri an ri gh ts . T h e ag re em en t a l s o al lo ws fo r re ne go ti at io n of th e bo un da ry as th e ch an ne l of th e ri ve r ch an ge s. 2. Fe li x Fr an kf ur te r & J a m e s M . La nd is , T h e C o m p a c t Cl au se o f th e Co ns ti tu - t i o n — A St ud y in In te rs ta te Ad ju st me nt s, 3 4 Y a L e . L. J. 68 5, 6 8 8 (1 92 5) . XV il i I n t r o d u c t i o n pa rt ie s in te re st ed in th e de ve lo pm en t o f , or su bj ec t to , in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s Th us , s o m e ch ap te rs pr ov id ea th eo re ti ca lb a s i s fo r co mp ac ts . Ot he r ch ap te rs se ek to pr ov id e a ve ry pr ac ti ca l pe rs pe ct iv e o n c o m p a c t s a n d th e po te nt ia l is su es o n e m a y fa ce in w o r k i n g wi th in te rs ta te co mp ac ts or li ti ga ti ng un de r su ch ag re em en ts . Fi na ll y, th e b o o k al so se ek s to pr ov id e bo th pr ac ti ti on er s of th e la w an d ot he rs wi th a pe rs pe ct iv e o n th e co mp le xi ty of c o m p a c t s an dt h e i r in te ra ct io n w i t h ot he r a g r e e m e n t s , st at e la ws , a n d fe de ra l la ws . sot, PbSABAWaRR WAS.TINT IY FRSARATE|SNARETSfTTRadCIMT fe eo meee C h a p t e r 14 T H E G E N E R A L L A W A N D P R I N C I P L E S G O V E R N I N G I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S 1. 1 T H E H I S T O R I C A L B A S I S O F I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S 1. 2 T H E N A T U R E O F I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S 3. 2. 1 G e n e r a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s 3. 2. 2 C o n t r a c t s B e t w e e n St at es 1 1. 33 T H E A D V A N T A G E S A N D D I S A D V A N T A G E S O F I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S 2 5 1. 4 I M P A C T O F C O M P A C T S O N P R I V A T E I N T E R E S T S 3 0mt AA WM No S t a t e sh al l, wi th ou t th e C o n s e n t of C o n g r e s s * * * en te r in to a n y A g r e e m e n t or C o m p a c t wi th a n o t h e r St at e, or w i t h a fo r- ei gn Po we r[ ,. ]! 1. 1. T H E H I S T O R I C A L B A S I S O F I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S T h e Fr am er s of th e Co ns ti tu ti on un de rs to od th at th e fe de ra l st ru ct ur e of A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t re qu ir ed fo rm al m e c h a n i s m s fo r ma na gi ng in te rs ta te re la ti on s, an d pa rt ic ul ar ly fo r m a n a g i n g th e c o m p l e x go ve rn me nt , po li ti ca l an d ec on om ic al le gi an ce s t h a t st at es mi gh t f o r m b e t w e e n th em se lv es . Co ns e- qu en tl y, th e Co ns ti tu ti on pr ov id es se ve ra l me ch an is ms f o r “a dj us ti ng ” in te r- St at e re la ti on s an d ad dr es si ng re gi on al or na ti on al is su es , m a n y of w h i c h ar e “s up ra -s ta te , su b- fe de ra l” in na tu re .? Se ve ra l e x a m p l e s of co ns ti tu ti on al co n- tr ol ov er st at e ac ti on de mo ns tr at e th at th e Fr am er s, th ou gh gr ea tl y st at e or i- en te d, w e r e al so ke en ly a w a r e of th e ne ed fo r s o m e s e m b l a n c e of co nt ro l ov er ay . U. S. Co ns t. ar t. I, § 10 , cl . 3. 2. T h e te rm “s up ra -s ta te , su b- fe de ra l” re fe rs to th os e ma tt er s th at ar e cl ea rl y b e y o n d th e r e a l m of in di vi du al st at e au th or it y bu t w h i c h , d u e to th ei r na - tu re , m a y no t b e wi th in th e i m m e d i a t e p u r v i e w o f th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t o r ea si ly re so lv ed t h r o u g h a pu re ly fe de ra l re sp on se . 1 2 C h a p t e r ] mu lt il at er al st at e ac ti on . T h r o u g h th e Fu ll Fa it h an d Cr ed it Cl au se of th e Co ns ti tu ti on , fo r ex am pl e, th e F r a m e r s cr ea te d a sy st em by w h i c h the cr it ic al ac ti on s of o n e st at e re ce iv ed no t on ly re co gn it io n bu t al so en fo rc em en t in si st er st at es , pr ov id in g, i n a se ns e, a na ti on al s c h e m e of le ga l re gu la ti on ov er th e ac ti on s of st at es .? Co ng re ss 's ex te ns iv e po we r o v e r in te rs ta te c o m m e r c e pr ov id es ye t an ot he r m e c h a n i s m fo r ad ju st in g in te rs ta te re la ti on sh ip s— of te n in an e c o n o m i c se ns e th at ne ve rt he le ss ca n h a v e gr ea t so ci al an d po li ti ca l co ns eq ue nc es ,‘ T h e S u p r e m a c y Cl au se an d f e d e r a l pr ee mp ti on do ct ri ne pr o- vi de an ad di ti on al co nt ro l ov er s t a t e ac ti on s— in di vi du al an d co ll ec ti ve —b y en su ri ng th at fe de ra l la w wi ll tr um ps t a t e l a w in an y le gi ti ma te co mp et it io n b e t w e e n th e tw o. T h e fa r- re ac hi ng po we r o f th e fe de ra l ju di ci ar y, a n d pa r- ti cu la rl y th e S u p r e m e Co ur t’ s or ig in al ju ri sd ic ti on ov er st at e di sp ut es , se rv es as an ot he r me an s o f ad ju st in g in te rs ta te re la ti on s b y ve st in g ul ti ma te au th or - it y ov er st at e di sp ut es di re ct ly in th e na ti on ’s hi gh es t co ur t. 5 Of a l l o f th e m e c h a n i s m s av ai la bl e, n o n e is m o r e fo rm al , m o r e st at e- fo cu se d, m o r e ad ap ta bl e to co ll ec ti ve St at e ne ed s, an d pe rh ap s le ss un de r- st oo d th an in te rs ta te co mp ac ts . C o m p a c t s ar e fu nd am en ta ll y ne go ti at ed ag re em en ts a m o n g m e m b e r s t a t e s th at h a v e th e St at us of bo th co nt ra ct an d St at ut or y la w. In te rs ta te c o m p a c t s re pr es en t on eo f a li mi te d nu mb er o f pr o- ce ss es pr ov id ed in th e Co ns ti tu ti on fo r ad ju st in g an d re gu la ti ng fo rm al st at e re la ti on s, be th ey bo un da ri es , su bs ta nt iv e la w, or ev en ec on om ic r e l a t i o n - sh ip s. M o r e im po rt an t, c o m p a c t s re pr es en t th e on ly m e c h a n i s m in th e Co ns ti - tu ti on b y w h i c h th e s t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s ca n al te r th e d y n a m i c s of th ei r m a 3. U. S. Co ns r. ar t. TV , § 1. 4. Se e, e. g. , P e r e z v. U n i t e d St at es , 4 0 2 U . S : 1 4 6 (1 97 1) (u ph ol di ng un de rt h e C o m m e r c e Cl au se ap pl ic at io n of th e C o n s u m e r Cr ed it Pr ot ec ti on Ac tt o pu re ly in tr as ta te lo an -s ha rk in g ac ti vi ti es ); W i c k a r d v. Fi lb ur n, 3 1 7 U. S. 11 1 (1 94 2) (u ph ol di ng th e ap pl ic at io n of th e Ag ri cu lt ur al A d j u s t m e n t A c t to th e co n- s u m p t i o n of h o m e g r o w n w h e a t b y a sm al l w h e a t fa rm er ); N. L. R. B. v . Jo ne s & L a u g h l i n St ee l Co rp ., 3 0 1 U. S. 1 ( 1 9 3 7 ) (s us ta in in g th e va li di ty of th e N a - ti on al La bo r Re la ti on s Ac t, an d ho ld in g th at ac ti vi ti es ha vi ng su ch a cl os e an d su bs ta nt ia l re la ti on to in te rs ta te co mm er ce th at th ei r co nt ro li s es se nt ia l to pr ot ec ti on of th at c o m m e r c e f r o m b u r d e n s ar e su bj ec t to co ng re ss io na l re gu la ti on ). Bu r se e Un it ed St at es v . Lo pe z, 51 4 U. S. 54 9 (1 99 5) (C on gr es s w e n t b e y o n d it s C o m m e r c e C l a u s e au th or it y in ad op ti ng G u n - F r e e S c h o o l Z o n e s A c t o f 19 90 , as th e ac t h a d n o t h i n g to d o wi th c o m m e r c e or a n y ec o- no mi c ac ti vi ty an d, th er ef or e, co ul d no t be su st ai ne d as a re gu la ti on of ac ti v- it y ar is in g ou t o f or c o n n e c t e d w i t h a c o m m e r c i a l tr an sa ct io n, wh ic h, w h e n vi ew ed i n th e ag gr eg at e, su bs ta nt ia ll y af fe ct ed in te rs ta te c o m m e r c e ) , 5. U . S . C o n s t . a r t . I I , § 2. Framtenuneecas eae T h e G e n e r a l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 3 re la ti on sh ip s wi th ou t ru nn in g af ou l of th e au th or it y of th e fe de ra l go ve rn . m e n t or re or de ri ng th e fe de ra l st ru ct ur e of go ve rn me nt . Th us , co mp ac ts a r e si ng ul ar ly im po rt an t be ca us e th ro ug h a co mp ac t, th e t e s c a e cr ea ° a r e ba se d so lu ti on to re gi on al or na ti on al pr ob le ms an d ef fe ct iv e y re ta " po ll y co nt ro l fo r th e fu tu re . W h a t Ju st ic e B r a n d e i s o b s e r v e d in 1 9 3 8 in in de rl i vy, L a Pl at a Ri ve r & Ch er ry Cr ee k Di tc h Co . is eq ua ll y tr ue to da y: It ig no re s th e hi st or y an d or de r of de ve lo pm en t of th e t w o m e a n s pr ov id ed b y th e Co ns ti tu ti on fo r ad ju st in g in te rs ta te co nt ro ve rs ie s Th e c o m p a c t — t h e le gi sl at iv e m e a n s — a d a p t s to ou r U n i o n o So ve re ig n St at es th e ag e- ol d tr ea ty -m ak in g p o w e r of in de pe nd en t So ve re ig n n e ti on s. Ad ju st me nt by co mp ac t wi th ou t a ju di ci al or qu as i- ju di ci al de te rm in at io n of ex is ti ng ri gh ts ha d be en pr ac ti ce d in th e Co lo ni es , w a s pr ac ti ce d b y th e St at es be fo re th e ad op ti on of th e Co ns ti tu ti on , an ha d be en ex te ns iv el y pr ac ti ce d in th e Un it ed St at es fo r ne ar ly a - ce nt ur y be fo re th is Co ur t fi rs t ap pl ie d th e ju di ci al m e a n s in se tt li ng th e bo un da ry di sp ut e in R h o d e Is la nd v. Ma ss ac hu se tt s. Th eh i s t o r y of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts sp an s a br oa d ra ng e of Hi me ,e x t e n d i n g we ll be fo re th e dr af ti ng of th e U. S. Co ns ti tu ti on or e v e n th e m e K s oF Co nf ed er at io n. C o m p a c t s ar e, th er ef or e, th e ol de st m e c h a n i s m av ai la ° to p r o m o t e fo rm al in te rs ta te co op er at io n, ha vi ng th ei r ro ot s in th e ; e n c a n co lo ni al er a, w h e n ea ch co lo ny wa sr e l a t e d di re ct ly to th e K i n g o n e r e fo re , en jo ye d a me as ur e of in de pe nd en ce f r o m ev er y ot he r co lo ny . a e r e w a s no “f ed er al ” sy st em of co lo ni al g o v e r n m e n t a n d n o g o v e r n m e n t w i pn at io na l sc op e an d po we r. W h i l e th e co lo ni es w e r e cl ea rl y “r el at ed ” to o n e n o n e th ro ug h ge og ra ph y, ec on om y, an d cu lt ur e, th er e w a s n o re co gn i ie 2 O e m a l go ve rn me nt al re la ti on sh ip s ex is ti ng se pa ra te an d ap ar t r o m th el r d ir e’ ac co un ta bi li ty to th e C r o w n . Fo r bo th ph il os op hi ca l a n d pr ac ti c ‘s on s, Br it ai n co ul d no t al lo w th e co lo ni es to cr ea te al te rn at iv e g o v e r n m e n t s i r e tu re s se pa ra te f r o m th e Cr ow n, a n d , co ns eq ue nt ly , n o in tr ac on ti ne n a y er mm en t wi th na ti on al p o w e r an d sc op e ex is te d pr io r to th e R e v o l u fo n. s s a re su lt , al l in te rc ol on ia l di sp ut es w e r e su bm it te d to th e C r o w n fo r re so lu o e be ca us e th e co lo ni es la ck ed th e au th or it y to in de pe nd en tl y re so lv e th ei r fe re nc es or m a n a g e th ei r in te rc ol on ia l r el at io ns . i 4 6. Hi nd er li de r vy. L a Pl at a Ri ve r & C h e r r y C r e e k D i t c h Co ., 3 0 4 U . S . 92 , 10 (1 93 8) . 4 C h a p t e r 1 W e l l b e f o r e th e U n i t e d St at es w a s e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r th e Ar ti cl es o f C o n - f e d e r a t i o n a n d P e r p e t u a l U n i o n (“ Ar ti cl es o f C o n f e d e r a t i o n ’ ) , c o l o n i a l a u - th or it ie s h a d ex pe ri en ce us in g m e c h a n i s m s a n d pr oc es se s si mi la r to c o m p a c t s to re so lv e th ei r di sp ut es . M o s t in te rc ol on ia l di sp ut es ge ne ra ll y in vo lv ed b o u n d - ar y co nt ro ve rs ie s th at ar os e f r o m th e va ri ou s. ro ya l la nd ch ar te rs u n d e r w h i c h th e co lo ni es we re fo un de d. Th es e ch ar te rs we re by de fi ni ti on an d op er at io n v a g u e a n d ex pa ns iv e, ap pl yi ng to la nd s t h a t la ck ed ad eq ua te su rv ey s a n d fo r w h i c h fo rm al po ss es si on w a s qu es ti on ab le . F o r e x a m p l e , th e U. S. S u p r e m e Co ur t r e c e n t l y no te d in Vi rg in ia v. M a r y l a n d th at “C on tr ol of th e [ P o t o m a c ] Ri ve r ha s b e e n di sp ut ed fo r ne ar ly 4 0 0 ye ar s. In th e 17 th ce nt ur y, bo th M a r y - la nd a n d Vi rg in ia la id cl ai m to th e Ri ve r pu rs ua nt to co nf li ct in g ro ya l ch ar - te rs is su ed b y di ff er en t Br it is h M o n a r c h s . ” M o r e o v e r , th e P l y m o u t h Ch ar te r of 1 6 2 8 g a v e to Si r H e n r y R o s e w e l l la nd wh os e tr ue te rr it or ia l de fi ni ti on w a s le ft o p e n to wi ld ly va ry in g i nt er pr et at io ns . T h a t ch ar te r a n d su bs eq ue nt a m e n d - m e n t s f o r m e d pa rt of th e ba si s fo r a la nd di sp ut e th at le d to th e S u p r e m e Co ur t’ s in te rv en ti on in R h o d e Is la nd v. M a s s a c h u s e t t s . Ma tt er s b e c a m e m o r e co mp li ca te d wi th th e e x p a n s i o n of th e co lo ni es ge og ra ph ic al ly a n d in te rm s o f th ei r mi gr at in g po pu la ti on s. A s po pu la ti on s m o v e d fu rt he r we st , At la nt ic C o a s t co lo ni es m a d e ex tr av ag an t cl ai ms t o po r- ti on s of th e in te ri or co nt in en t b a s e d in pa rt o n th ei r b r o a d la nd ch ar te rs a n d in pa rt o n th e pr in ci pl e th at po ss es si on w a s ni ne -t en th s of th e la w. Co ns eq ue nt ly , b o u n d a r y di sp ut es b e t w e e n th e co lo ni es we re in ev it ab le an d th e Cr ow n, t h r o u g h th e Pr iv y Co un ci l, w a s re qu ir ed to se tt le a n u m b e r of bo rd er di sp ut es . In 17 27 , fo r e x a m p l e , th e Pr iv y C o u n c i l re so lv ed a di sp ut e b e t w e e n Rh od e I s - la nd an d Co nn ec ti cu t. Th is wa s fo ll ow ed by ca se s be tw ee n N e w Ha mp sh ir e a n d Ma ss ac hu se tt s in 1 7 4 0 a n d b e t w e e n Rh od e I s l a n d a n d Ma ss ac hu se tt s in 17 46 . T h e n e e d fo r a m e t h o d to co nt in ua ll y ad dr es s b o u n d a r y di sp ut es co n- tr ib ut ed to th e ev ol ut io n of th e “ c o m p a c t ” pr oc es s fi rs t ex pr es se d in th e Ar - ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n a n d la te r ca rr ie d f o r w a r d a n d fo rm al iz ed in Ar ti cl e I, Se ct io n 10 of th e U. S. Co ns ti tu ti on . A l t h o u g h fr eq ue nt ly th ou gh t o f in te rm s of al lo wi ng st at es to en te r c o m - pa ct s, th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n a n d la te r th e Co ns ti tu ti on s p e a k to in te r- st at e co mp ac ts i n re st ri ct iv e or li mi ti ng la ng ua ge , n o t au th or iz in g th ei r cr ea ti on bu t re st ra in in g th ei r cr ea ti on . B e g i n n i n g wi th th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n, th e Fo un de rs re st ri ct ed th e ab il it y of th e st at es to jo in in fo rm al , c o m m o n en te rp ri se s or al le gi an ce s. A l t h o u g h th ey re co gn iz ed th at e a c h st at e re ta in ed “i ts so ve re ig nt y, f r e e d o m a n d in de pe nd en ce ,” th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n 7. Vi rg in ia v. Ma ry la nd , 5 4 0 U. S. 56 , 6 0 (2 00 3) . 8. R h o d e Is la nd v. M a s s a c h u s e t t s , 3 7 U . S . 6 5 7 , 6 5 9 - 6 0 (1 83 8) . T h e G e n e r a l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 5 pl ac ed li mi ta ti on s o n mu lt il at er al st at e ac ti on b y pr ov id in g th at n o st at e c o u l d en te r “ a n y tr ea ty , co nf ed er at io n o r a l l i a n c e w h a t e v e r b e t w e e n t h e m , w i t h o u t th e co ns en t .. .o f Co ng re ss [. ]” ” Th is pr ov is io n re ga rd in g in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s w a s m e a n t pr im ar il y as a pr ev en ti ve me as ur e; t h a t is , th e pr ov is io n’ s p u r p o s e w a s to li mi t th e ab il it y of th e st at es to ac t co ll ec ti ve ly th ro ug h c o m p a c t s or ot he r fo rm al ar ra ng em en ts ab se nt co ng re ss io na l co ns en t. T h e r e a s o n s be hi nd t h e r e s t r i c t i v e n a t u r e o f th e c o m p a c t c l a u s e s c o n t a i n e d in th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n an dt h e Co ns ti tu ti on re st ed in co nc er n fo r w h a t to da y is s o m e t i m e s re fe rr ed to as th e “c ol le ct iv e ac ti on ” p r o b l e m of fe de ra l- i s m . ' Co ll ec ti ve ac ti on o c c u r s w h e n t w o or m o r e st at es s e e k to m a x i m i z e th ei r so ve re ig nt y a n d po li ti ca l p o w e r th ro ug h co ll ec ti ve , jo in t or co op er at iv e ef fo rt s at th e ex pe ns e of ot he r st at es or re gi on s, or e v e n th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . T h e co nc er n ov er co ll ec ti ve ac ti on w a s so co mp el li ng th at th e dr af te rs of th e Ar - ‘t ic le s pr ov id ed th at C o n g r e s s al on e w a s to b e th e “l as t re so rt o n ap pe al i n al l di sp ut es a n d di ff er en ce s . . .b e t w e e n t w o or m o r e St at es co nc er ni ng bo un da ry , ju ri sd ic ti on or an y ot he r ca us e wh at ev er [. ]” " Ar ti cl e L X of th e Ar ti cl es of Co n- fe de ra ti on cr ea te d an el ab or at e pr oc ed ur al m e c h a n i s m b y w h i c h th e “l eg is la - ti ve or ex ec ut iv e au th or it y or la wf ul ag en t of a n y St at e in co nt ro ve rs y wi th an ot he r” w o u l d pe ti ti on Co ng re ss . In la rg e pa rt , th e pr oc es s co nc ei ve d in th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n cl os el y mi rr or ed th e pr oc es s us ed b y th e C r o w n du r- in g th e co lo ni al er a. Co lo ni al di sp ut es w e r e ei th er (1 ) ne go ti at ed , th en su bm it - te d to th e C r o w n fo r ap pr ov al (a pr oc es s si mi la r to th e c o m p a c t me th od ), or (2 ) ap pe al ed di re ct ly to th e C r o w n th ro ug h th e Pr iv y Co un ci l (a pr oc es s si mi la r to su bm it ti ng st at e di sp ut es di re ct ly to Co ng re ss ). Ne ve rt he le ss , e v e n th e po we rt h e na ti on al g o v e r n m e n t po ss es se d un de r th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n re ga rd in g fo re ig n re la ti on s w a s s o m e t i m e s su bj ec tt o th e va ga ri es of t h e st at es , ac ti ng in di vi du al ly or co ll ec ti ve ly . A l t h o u g h th e re - st ri ct io ns co nt ai ne d in th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n w e r e me an tt o pr ot ec t w h a t li tt le p o w e r th e na ti on al g o v e r n m e n t en jo ye d f r o m st at e e n c r o a c h m e n t , th e re st ri ct io ns di d no t pr ov e ef fe ct iv e wi th th e pa ss ag e of ti me . C o n c e r n ov er 9. Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n, ar t. V I (U .S . 17 81 ) ( “ N o t w o or mo re S t a t e s sh al l en te r in to a n y tr ea ty , c o n f e d e r a t i o n or al li an ce w h a t e v e r b e t w e e n t h e m , wi th ou t th e co ns en to f th e Un it ed St at es in Co ng re ss as se mb le d, sp ec if yi ng ac cu ra te ly th e pu rp os es fo r w h i c h th e sa me i s to be en te re d in to , an d h o w lo ng it sh al l co nt in ue .” ). 10 . Se e, e. g. , No te , To F o r m a M o r e Pe rf ec t Un io n? : Fe de ra li sm a n d In fo rm al In te rs ta te C o o p e r a t i o n , 1 0 2 H a r v . L. R e v . 8 4 2 , 8 4 4 - 4 7 (1 98 9) . 11 . Ar ti cl es of C o n f e d e r a t i o n , ar t. I X (U .S . 17 81 ). 6 Ch ap te r J co ll ec ti ve st at e ac ti on c o n t i n u e d to b e a f o c u s o f th e e v o l v i n g g o v e r n m e n t . T h e “ c o n s e n t ” r e q u i r e m e n t s e t o u t in Ar ti cl e I, S e c t i o n 1 0 o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n w a s a ca rr yo ve r fr om th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n. It wa s in te nd ed to co nt in ue th e pr in ci pl e th at th ro ug h it s co ns en t po we rs , th e C o n g r e s s w o u l d be a co un te r- we ig ht a g a i n s t po te nt ia ll y ha rm fu l co ll ec ti ve st at e ac ti on th at co ul d er od e th e vi ab il it y a n d so ve re ig nt y of th e na ti on al go ve rn me nt . C o m p a r i s o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e b e t w e e n Ar ti cl e I, S e c t i o n 10 , C l a u s e 1 o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n — t h e Tr ea ty C l a u s e — a n d A r t i c l e I, Se ct io n 10 , C l a u s e 3 — th e C o m p a c t Cl au se . T h e Tr ea ty C l a u s e de cl ar es th at “N oS t a t e , sh al l en te r in to An yT r e a t y , Al li an ce or C o n f e d e r a t i o n . ” By co nt ra st , th e C o m p a c t Cl au se d e c l a r e s th at “ N o St at e sh al l, w i t h o u t th e C o n s e n t o f C o n g r e s s * * * e n t e r in to an y Ag re em en t or C o m p a c t wi th an ot he r St at e[ .] !3 T h e hi st or y of in te rs ta te a g r e e m e n t s u n d e r th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n su gg es ts a di st in ct io n be - t w e e n “t re at ie s, al li an ce s, a n d c o n f e d e r a t i o n s ” a n d “ a g r e e m e n t s a n d c o m - pa ct s. ” Co ng re ss io na l co ns en t cl ea rl y w a s re qu ir ed be fo re a st at e co ul d en te r in to an a r r a n g e m e n t wi th a fo re ig n st at e or po we r, or be fo re t w o or m o r e St at es co ul d en te r in to “t re at ie s, al li an ce s, or co nf ed er at io ns .” Ap pa re nt ly , ho we ve r, un de r t h e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n co ns en t wa s no t re qu ir ed fo r m e r e “a gr ee me nt s” be tw ee ns ta te s. A s th e S u p r e m e Co ur t ob se rv ed in W h a r t o n v. Wi se , “{ t} he ar ti cl es in hi bi ti ng a n y tr ea ty , co nf ed er at io n, or al li an ce be - t w e e n th e St at es wi th ou t th e co ns en t of C o n g r e s s . . . w e r e no t de si gn ed to pr ev en t ar ra ng em en ts b e t w e e n ad jo in in g St at es to fa ci li ta te th e fr ee in te r- co ur se of t h e i r ci ti ze ns , or re mo ve b a r r i e r s to th ei r p e a c e a n d pr os pe ri ty [. ]” * Ye t th e re co rd s of th e Co ns ti tu ti on al C o n v e n t i o n re ve al n o cl ue s as to th e co nt ou rs of a g r e e m e n t s g o v e r n e d b y th e C o m p a c t Cl au se . T h e la ck of d e f i n i - ti on fl ow in g f r o m co nv en ti on re co rd s su gg es ts th at th e F r a m e r s e m p l o y e d th e w o r d s “t re at y, ” “c om pa ct ,” a n d “ a g r e e m e n t ” as te rm s of a r t , fo r w h i c h n o ex pl an at io n w a s re qu ir ed .' * T h e F r a m e r s ap pa re nt ly pe rc ei ve d c o m p a c t s a n d a g r e e m e n t s as di ff er in g f r o m tr ea ti es . A S a re su lt , c o m p a c t s be tw ee n s t a t e s h a v e a l w a y s be en t r e a t e d di ff er en tl y th an tr ea ti es b e t w e e n st at es a n d fo re ig n na ti on s. Co ur ts h a v e b e e n fa r m o r e le ni en t to de fi ni ng ex ce pt io ns t o th er es tr ic ti on s of th e C o m p a c t C l a u s e th an th ey h a v e b e e n re la ti ve to de fi ni ng th e co nt ou rs of th e Tr ea ty Cl au se . F o r ex am pl e, th e Vi rg in ia -M ar yl an d C o m p a c t of 17 85 , wh ic h go ve rn ed na vi ga - 12 . U. S. Co ns r. ar t. I, § 10 , cl . 1. 13 . U. S. Co ns t. ar t. I, § 10 , cl . 3. 14 . Ar ti cl es o f C o n f e d e r a t i o n , ar t. V I (U .S . 17 81 ). 15 . W h a r t o n v. W i s e , 1 5 3 U . S . 15 5, 1 6 7 (1 89 4) . 16 . U . S . St ee l C o r p . v. Mu lt is ta te T a x C o m m ’ n , 4 3 4 U . S . 4 5 2 (1 97 8) . Th e Ge ne ra l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 7 ~ gi on a n d fi sh in g ri gh ts in th e P o t o m a c Ri ve r, th e P o c o m o k e Ri ve r, a n d th e Ch es ap ea ke Ba y, di d no t re ce iv e co ng re ss io na l co ns en t. Ye t no qu es ti on of it s ya li di ty u n d e r th e Ar ti cl es of Co nf ed er at io n ev er a r o s e . In re fe rr in g to th is 17 85 c o m p a c t in W h a r t o n v. Wi se , th e S u p r e m e C o u r t no te d: [ L o o k i n g at th e ob je ct ev id en tl y in te nd ed b y th e pr oh ib it io n of t h e Ar ti cl es o f C o n f e d e r a t i o n , we a r e cl ea r t h e y w e r e n o t di re ct ed a g a i n s t ag re em en ts of th e ch ar ac te r ex pr es se d b y th e co mp ac t u n d e r co ns id - er at io n. It s ex ec ut io n co ul d in n o re sp ec t e n c r o a c h u p o n or w e a k e n th e ge ne ra l au th or it y of Co ng re ss un de r th os e ar ti cl es . Va ri ou s c o m - pa ct s w e r e en te re d in to b e t w e e n Pe nn sy lv an ia a n d N e w Je rs ey a n d b e t w e e n Pe nn sy lv an ia a n d Vi rg in ia , du ri ng th e Co nf ed er at io n, in re fe re nc e to bo un da ri es be tw ee n th em , an dt o ri gh ts of fi sh er y in th ei r wa te rs , a n d tot i t l e s to l a n d in th ei r r e s p e c t i v e St at es , w i t h o u t th e c o n s e n t o f C o n g r e s s , w h i c h i n d i c a t e d th at s u c h c o n s e n t w a s n o t de em ed e s s e n t i a l to th ei r va li di ty .! ” Wh at ev er ex pl ic it un de rs ta nd in g th e Fr am er s ha d be hi nd th e in te nt of Ar ti cl e I, Se ct io n 10 ha s b e e n lo st . In tr yi ng to re co nc il e c o m p e t i n g pr ov i- si on s, Ju st ic e St or y d e v e l o p e d a th eo ry th at tr ea ti es , al li an ce s, a n d co nf ed er a- ti on s ge ne ra ll y co nn ot e mi li ta ry an d po li ti ca l ac co rd s fo rb id de n to st at es . C o m p a c t s a n d ag re em en ts , b y co nt ra st , e m b r a c e d “ m e r e pr iv at e ri gh ts of so ve re ig nt y, su ch as qu es ti on s of bo un da ry ; in te re st s in la nd si tu at ed in th e te rr it or y of ea ch ot he r; a n d ot he r in te rn al re gu la ti on s fo r th e m u t u a l c o m f o r t an d co nv en ie nc e of St at es bo rd er in g o n ea ch ot he r. ”! * In th e la tt er si tu at io ns , co ng re ss io na l co ns en t w a s re qu ir ed “i n or de r to c h e c k a n y in fr in ge me nt of th e ri gh ts of th e na ti on al g o v e r n m e n t . ” ? A l t h o u g h fo r m a n y ye ar s th e Su - pr em e Co ur t’ s co mp ac t ju ri sp ru de nc e wa s a t be st in co nc lu si ve an d at wo rs t co nv ol ut ed , th e pr in ci pl es ar ti cu la te d b y Ju st ic e St or y h a v e do mi na te d. Co ur ts fa ce d wi th th e ta sk of ap pl yi ng th e C o m p a c t C l a u s e w e r e re lu ct an t to st ri ke d o w n e m e r g i n g fo rm so f in te rs ta te co op er at io n. T h e n e e d to re co nc il e in te r- St at e co op er at io n wi th th e br oa dr es tr ic ti ve l a n g u a g e of th e Co ns ti tu ti on di c- ta te d a m o r e di sc ri mi na ti ng ju ri sp ru de nc e. F o r ex am pl e, in U n i o n B r a n c h R. Co . v. Ea st Te nn es se e & G. R. Co ., ” th e S u p r e m e Co ur t of Ge or gi ar ej ec te d a 17 . W h a r t o n v. Wi se , 15 3 U. S. 15 5, 17 0- 71 (1 89 4) . 18 . 2J . S t o r y , C O M M E N T A R I E S O N T H E C O N S T I T U T I O N O F T H E U N I T E D St at es § 14 03 , p . 2 6 4 (T . C o o l e y ed . 18 73 ). 19 . Id . 20 . U n i o n B r a n c h R. R. C o . v . E a s t T e n n . & G . R . R . Co ., 1 4 G a . 3 2 7 (G a. 18 53 ). 8 “C ha pt er 1 C o m p a c t C l a u s e ch al le ng e to an a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n T e n n e s s e e a n d G e o r g i a co nc er ni ng t h e co ns tr uc ti on o f an in te rs ta te ra il ro ad , co nc lu di ng th at th e C o m - pa ct Cl au se r e s t r a i n e d th e po we r o f th e s t a t e s on ly wi th re sp ec t to a g r e e m e n t s “ w h i c h m i g h t li mi t, or in fr in ge u p o n a fu ll a n d c o m p l e t e ex ec ut io n b y th e G e n e r a l G o v e r n m e n t , of th e p o w e r s in te nd ed to b e de le ga te d b y th e Fe de ra l Co ns ti tu ti on [. ]’ ?! Co ur ts , th er ef or e, a c k n o w l e d g e d ea rl y in th e d e v e l o p m e n t of c o m p a c t ju ri sp ru de nc e tw o im po rt an t pr in ci pl es : (1 ) th at th e fe de ra l st ru ct ur e of th e na ti on re qu ir ed a “s ta te -b as ed ” a p p r o a c h fo r jo in t ac ti on to re so lv e in te rs ta te di sp ut es ; a n d (2 ) th at s o m e f o r m of n a t i o n a l co nt ro l w a s ne ce ss ar y to m a i n - ta in in g th e in te gr it y of th e ne wl y es ta bl is he d un io n. T h e C o m p a c t Cl au se of th e Co ns ti tu ti on w a s an di s v i e w e d as a co nt in ue d ex pr es si on of th e Fr am er s’ in te nt to ma in ta in s o m e se mb la nc e o f n a t i o n a l co nt ro l ov er in te rs ta te re la - ti on s, a n d pa rt ic ul ar ly th e a m a l g a m a t i o n of po li ti ca l po we r i n th es t a t e s co l- le ct iv el y or in mo re po li ti ca ll y po we rf ul st at es a n d re gi on s. W h e n th e F r a m e r s s p o k e of co ng re ss io na l co ns en t, it is cl ea r th at th ey so ug ht to vi nd ic at e th e le gi sl at iv e p o w e r of C o n g r e s s a n d pr ot ec t th e p o w e r of th e en ti re fe de ra l go ve rn me nt .” Ja me s Ma di so n i n pa rt ic ul ar wa s co nc er ne d wi th th e te nd en cy of st at es a n d re gi on s to “p ar ti ti on th e U n i o n in to se ve ra l Co nf ed er ac ie s. ”” *4 T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t ha s re pe at ed ly ob se rv ed th at t h e pu rp os e o f t h e co ns ti tu - ti on al re st ri ct io n is to li mi t a g r e e m e n t s th at ar e di re ct ed to th e fo rm at io n of a n y co mb in at io ns t e n d i n g to in cr ea se po we r i n th es t a t e s th at e n c r o a c h u p o n or in te rf er e wi th th e su pr em ac yo f t h e na ti on al go ve rn me nt .” In Po rt Au th or - it y T r a n s - H u d s o n Co rp . v. Fe en ey , th e S u p r e m e C o u r t no te dt h a t “[ t} he In te r- st at e C o m p a c t C l a u s e a n d th e St at e Tr ea ty C l a u s e en su re th at w h a t e v e r so ve re ig nt y a St at e po ss es se s wi th in it s o w n sp he re of au th or it y en ds a t i t s po li ti ca l bo rd er .’ A s . o n e ob se rv er ha s st at ed , “[ t] he ba si c p u r p o s e of th e co ns ti tu ti on al re qu ir em en t of Co ng re ss io na l co ns en t is to m a k e ce rt ai n th at n o s u c h a g r e e m e n t s [t ho se af fe ct in g th e ba la nc e of po we r i n th e fe de ra l st ru c- 21 . Id . at 33 9. 22 . Mi ch ae l L. B u e n g e r & Ri ch ar d L. Ma st er s, T h e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n: Us in g O l d To ol s to So lv e N e w Pr ob le ms , 9 R o c E r W u u i a m s U . L . R e v . 71 , 81 (2 00 3) . 23 . M i l k In du s. Fo un d. v. Gl ic km an , 13 2 F. 3d 14 67 (D .C . Ci r. 19 98 ). 24 . Le tt er f r o m J a m e s M a d i s o n to T h o m a s Je ff er so n ( D e c . 9, 17 87 ), in 1 0 T u e P a p e r s O F J A M E S M a p i s o n 3 1 0 , 3 1 2 ( R o b e r t A . R u t l a n d et al . ed s. , 19 77 ). 25 . S e e U . S . St ee l C o r p . v. Mu lt is ta te T a x C o m m ’ n , 4 3 4 U . S . 4 5 2 (1 97 8) . 26 . Po rt Au th . T r a n s - H u d s o n Co rp . v . Fe en ey , 4 9 5 U. S. 29 9, 31 4- 15 (1 99 0) , Th e Ge ne ra l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 9 ut e] ca n st an d ag ai ns t th e wi ll of Co ng re ss .” ”” Wi th ou t th e re st ri ct iv e na tu re of th e C o m p a c t Cl au se , th er e w o u l d b e n o pr oh ib it io n ag ai ns t th e cr ea ti on of st at e al le gi an ce s a n d co nf ed er ac ie s, po te nt ia ll y re su lt in g in th e er os io n of fe de ra l p o w e r a n d ul ti ma te ly th e de co ns tr uc ti on of th e Un io n. 7 T h e re st ri ct iv e l a n g u a g e of th e C o m p a c t C l a u s e w o u l d s e e m to pr oh ib it an y st at es f r o m en te ri ng in to a n y ag re em en ts or c o m p a c t s ab se nt th e co ns en t of Co ng re ss . Th is w a s th e ge ne ra l un de rs ta nd in g of th e C o m p a c t Cl au se t h r o u g h o u t m u c h o f th e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h ce nt ur ie s. J a m e s M a d i s o n fo un dt h e re st ri ct io n so st ra ig ht fo rw ar d th at h e ob se rv ed i n T h e Fe de ra li st 4 4 th at “[ th e] r e m a i n i n g pa rt ic ul ar s of th is cl au se fa ll wi th in re as on s w h i c h ar e ei th er so ob vi ou s, or h a v e b e e n so fu ll y de ve lo pe d, th at th ey m a y b e pa ss ed o v e r w i t h o u t r e m a r k . ” ” * F o r pa rt o f th e na ti on ’s hi st or y, th er ef or e, t h e C o m - pa ct C l a u s e wa s s e e n as su ff ic ie nt ly b r o a d a n d re st ri ct iv e to r e n d e r an yi n t e r - st at e c o m p a c t s vo id ab se nt co ns en t b y Co ng re ss . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of th e re st ri ct iv e na tu re of th e C o m p a c t Cl au se ca nn ot b e un de re st im at ed . T h e re - st ri ct iv en es s of th e pr ov is io n a n d th e ju di ci ar y’ s ap pl ic at io n of t h a t te st ri c- ti ve ne ss m a y be o n e of th e re as on s so f e w c o m p a c t s w e r e en te re d in to fo r m o s t of th e na ti on ’s ea rl y hi st or y. C o m p a c t s w e r e ge ne ra ll y v i e w e d b y m o s t le ga l sc ho la rs of th e ag e as li mi te d pr im ar il y to ad dr es si ng st at e b o u n d a r y di sp ut es , as in th e ca se s of R h o d e Is la nd v. M a s s a c h u s e t t s a n d Vi rg in ia v. T e n n e s s e e . ” A t le as t th is w a s th e pr ac ti ca l ef fe ct , si nc e al l b u t o n e o f s o m e 3 6 c o m p a c t s en te re d in to be fo re 19 21 ad dr es se d st at e b o u n d a r y di sp ut es . Th is co lo ni al a n d ea rl y hi st or y is im po rt an t in un de rs ta nd in g th e cu rr en t d y n a m i c s as so ci at ed wi th th e c o m p a c t i n g pr oc es s. In te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ar e de ep ly ro ot ed in th e na ti on ’s hi st or y. A l t h o u g h th e na tu re a n d su bj ec t ma tt er of in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ha s m o s t as su re dl y b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x a n d w o u l d li ke ly be wi ld er th e Fr am er s, th e ba si c pr oc es se s a n d pr in ci pl es un de rl yi ng th es e ag re em en ts h a v e no t c h a n g e d r e m a r k a b l y in th e la st 2 5 0 ye ar s. 1. 2 T H E N A T U R E O F I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S 1. 2: 1 G e n e r a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s C o m p a c t s ho ld a un iq ue pl ac e in A m e r i c a n la w in pa rt b e c a u s e of t h e i r g r o w i n g re ac h a n d in pa rt be ca us e o f th e st at us of t h e pa rt ie s to s u c h ag re e- 27 . F R E D E R I C K L. Z I M M E R M A N & M i T C H E L L W E N D E L L , T H E L A W A N D US EO F IN TE RS TA TE C o m p a c t s 2 2 ( C o u n c i l o f St at e G o v e r n m e n t s 19 76 ). 28 . T H e Fe pe ra ci st No . 4 4 (J am es Ma di so n) . 29 . R h o d e Is la nd v. M a s s a c h u s e t t s , 3 7 U . S . 6 5 7 , 7 2 9 (1 83 8) . 30 . Vi rg in ia v. T e n n e s s e e , 1 4 8 U . S . 5 0 3 (1 89 3) . 10 Ch ap te r I m e n t s . W i t h i n th e fe de ra l s y s t e m o f A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t , st at es o c c u p y a qu as i- so ve re ig n st at us . T h e fu nc ti on a n d pu rp os es o f in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ca n on ly be un de rs to od an d ap pr ec ia te d b y ac ce pt in g th at st at es ar e no t m e r e po li ti ca l su bd iv is io ns of th e na ti on al go ve rn me nt . Ra th er , th ey ex is t in a co - te rm in ou s re la ti on sh ip wi th th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt , en jo yi ng wi th in th e re al m of th ei r au th or it y a le ve l of so ve re ig nt y th at is no t de pe nd en t u p o n or a si mp le by pr od uc t of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt ’s na ti on al so ve re ig nt y. A s th e S u p r e m e Co ur t no te d in A l d e n v. M a i n e : T h e fe de ra l sy st em es ta bl is he d b y ou r Co ns ti tu ti on pr es er ve s th e so ve re ig n st at us of th e St at es in t w o wa ys . Fi rs t, it re se rv es to t h e m a su bs ta nt ia l po rt io n of th e Na ti on ’s pr im ar y so ve re ig nt y, to ge th er wi th th e di gn it y an d es se nt ia l at tr ib ut es in he ri ng in th at st at us . T h e St at es “ f o r m di st in ct a n d in de pe nd en t po rt io ns of th e su pr em ac y, n o m o r e su bj ec t, wi th in th ei r re sp ec ti ve sp he re s, to th e ge ne ra l au th or - it y th an th e ge ne ra l au th or it y is su bj ec t to th em , wi th in it s o w n sp he re .” S e c o n d , e v e n as to m a t t e r s w i t h i n th e c o m p e t e n c e o f th e na ti on al g o v e r n m e n t , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e s i g n s e c u r e s t h e f o u n d i n g ge ne ra ti on ’s re je ct io n of “t he co nc ep t of a ce nt ra l go ve rn me nt t h a t w o u l d ac t u p o n th e St at es ” in fa vo r of ‘a sy st em in wh ic ht h e St at e a n d Fe de ra l G o v e r n m e n t s w o u l d ex er ci se co nc ur re nt au th or it y ov er th e pe op le .” ”! Th es t a t u s of st at es as po ss es si ng “p ri ma ry so ve re ig nt y” im pa ct s in te r- St at e ag re em en ts an dp ar ti cu la rl y in te rs ta te co mp ac ts . Ra th er th an ac ti ng as m e r e po li ti ca l su bd iv is io ns or ag en ts of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt , st at es h a v e fu ll au th or it y wi th in th e re al m of th ei r re sp on si bi li ti es an d p o w e r s to m a k e li mi te d, se lf -d et er mi na ti ve ag re em en ts wi th si st er st at es , ea ch st at e ac ti ng i n a “s ov er ei gn ca pa ci ty .” Mo re ov er , be ca us e st at es po ss es s so ve re ig nt y re la ti ve to ea ch ot he r, in te rs ta te pr ob le ms ca n be re so lv ed on ly th ro ug he i t h e r th e ju di - ci al pr oc es s, en ta il in g a li ti ga ti on -b as ed so lu ti on , or th ro ug h a le gi sl at iv e pr oc es s th at em br ac es ne go ti at io n an ds el f- de te rm in at iv e ag re em en ts . A b s e n t ju di ci al en do rs em en t, on e st at e ca nn ot un il at er al ly i m p o s e it s wi ll o n ot he r st at es , fo r to d o so w o u l d vi ol at e fu nd am en ta l pr in ci pl es of so ve re ig nt y a n d in de pe nd en ce , un de rm in in g the s t a t u s of st at es as eq ua l m e m b e r s in a un io n. H o w e v e r , on ly to th e ex te nt th at mu lt il at er al ag re em en ts am on g s t a t e s in va de fe de ra l in te re st s do th e ag re em en ts b e c o m e a co nc er n fo r Co ng re ss a c t i n g to pr ot ec ti t s in te re st s. T h e ab il it y to ne go ti at e a n d en te ri nt er st at e ag re em en ts th at ar e bi nd in gi s a fa r di ff er en t p o w e r f r o m th at po ss es se d by tr ue po li ti ca l 31 . A l d e n v. M a i n e , 5 2 7 U. S. 70 6, 7 1 4 (1 99 9) . i : g i if 4 SAAREAREAMEToot T h e G e n e r a l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s il su bd iv is io ns of go ve rn me nt , su ch as co un ti es or mu ni ci pa li ti es , w h o s e p o w - er s an d au th or it y ar e su bj ec t to ex pa ns io n or co nt ra ct io n de pe nd in g up on t h e wi ll of ce nt ra l st at e au th or it y. St at es ca n, th er ef or e, th ro ug h in di vi du al an d co ll ec ti ve ac ti on , en te r in to ag re em en ts wi th ot he rs ta te s th at co nt ro l cu rr en t an d fu tu re st at e ac ti on . H e r e li es bo th th e be au ty an d di ff ic ul ty of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts . On er e a s o n so f e w co mp ac ts ha ve be en en te re d in to th ro ug ho ut t h e hi st or y of th e na ti on m a y ha ve to do wi th th ei r od di ty wi th in th e fe de ra l st ru ct ur e of A m e r i c a n go ve rn me nt . Ar gu ab ly , in te rs ta te co mp ac ts vi ol at e th e pu re pr in - ci pl es of fe de ra li sm be ca us e th ey br in g in to fo rm al co nt ac t in de pe nd en t go v- e m m e n t u n i t s a n d a l l o w th os e un it s (t he st at es ) in s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s to cr ea te su b- fe de ra l, su pr a- st at e ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag en ci es : a th ir d ti er of go ve rn in g au - th or it y cr ea te d b y th e co ll ec ti ve ac ti on o f th e m e m b e r st at es b u t no t su bj ec t to th e si ng le au th or it y of an y on e st at e. T h e us e of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts as go ve rn - in g m e c h a n i s m s ad dr es si ng in te rs ta te ma tt er s b e y o n d c o m m o n b o u n d a r y di s- pu te s is la rg el y a d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e tw en ti et h ce nt ur y, c o m p e l l e d b y th e ex pl os io n in in te rs ta te is su es an d th e co nt in ui ng de ve lo pm en t of g o v e r n m e n t in st it ut io ns in re sp on se to th e ec on om ic , po li ti ca l, an d so ci al in te gr at io n of th e na ti on . Th er ef or e, th e us e of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts to cr ea te on go in g ad mi ni st ra - ti ve an d re gu la to ry ag en ci es is a na tu ra l ou tg ro wt h of m o d e r n go ve rn me nt a n d a ne ce ss it y if st at es in te nd to m a n a g e th ei r mu lt il at er al re la ti on sh ip s sh or t of fe de ra l pr ee mp ti on . Fo r ex am pl e, th e cr ea ti on of th e Wa sh in gt on Me tr op ol it an Ar ea Tr an si t Au th or it y ( W M A T A ) b y an in te rs ta te co mp ac t® * w a s ar gu ab ly in ev it ab le gi ve n th e gr ow in g in fr as tr uc tu re ne ed s of th e Wa sh in gt on , D. C. me t- ro po li ta n ar ea . Ab se nt fe de ra l in te rv en ti on , an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t b e t w e e n th e Di st ri ct of Co lu mb ia , Ma ry la nd , an d Vi rg in ia of fe re d th e on ly fu ll y bi nd in g M e c h a n i s m to re so lv e a c o m p l e x mu lt is ta te is su e of ex ce ed in g im po rt an ce to th at re gi on : th e cr ea ti on , in te gr at io n a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f ma ss t r a n s i t s y s t e m s in an ur ba n ar ea sp an ni ng se ve ra l in de pe nd en t an d so ve re ig n go ve rn me nt al un it s. L i k e w i s e , th e ai r tr an sp or ta ti on n e e d s of th at ar ea re su lt ed in th e a d o p - ti on of an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t be tw ee n th e Di st ri ct of C o l u m b i a an d th e C o m - m o n w e a l t h of Vi rg in ia cr ea ti ng th e Me tr op ol it an W a s h i n g t o n Ai rp or t Au th or it y to ad mi ni st er R e a g a n Na ti on al Ai rp or t an d Du ll es In te rn at io na l Ai rp or t. B o t h of th es e co mp ac ts il lu st ra te th e ne ed to ta ke a re gi on al ap pr oa ch to mu lt is ta te re gu la ti on , an ap pr oa ch th at re co gn iz es th at m a n y af fa ir s, a n d pa rt ic ul ar ly th os e of la rg e mu lt is ta te me tr op ol it an ar ea s, ig no re st at e bo un da ri es an d th er ef or e ca n on ly be ad dr es se d on a re gi on al ba si s wi th qu as i- re gi on al go ve rn me nt s n o t di re ct ly an sw er ab le to an y pa rt ic ul ar st at e. 32 . W a s h i n g t o n Me tr op ol it an A r e a Tr an si t Re gu la ti on C o m p a c t (1 98 1) . 12 C h a p t e r I T h e m o d e r n u s e o f in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s h a s ra is ed n e w is su es r e g a r d i n g co ng re ss io na l co ns en t re qu ir em en ts , ad mi ni st ra ti on of co mp ac t af fa ir s, a n d th e br ea dt h of to pi cs su bj ec t to re so lu ti on th ro ug h th e c o m p a c t m e c h a n i s m . C o m - pa ct s co me i n va ri ou s na tu re s, th e su bj ec t ma tt er of wh ic h i s li mi te d on ly b y th e cr ea ti vi ty of th e dr af te rs , th e re ad in es s of s t a t e le gi sl at ur es to ad op t a co mp ac t, an d th e wi ll in gn es s of Co ng re ss t o gi ve it s co ns en t, if ne ce ss ar y. A n un us ua l fe at ur e of an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t do es no t ma ke i t in va li d; th e c o m b i n e d le gi sl a- ti ve p o w e r s of Co ng re ss an d of th e se ve ra l st at es pe rm it a w i d e ra ng e of p e r m u - ta ti on s an d co mb in at io ns fo r go ve rn me nt al ac ti on .* ® Co ns eq ue nt ly , Co ng re ss an d th e st at es ca n co ns tr uc t al te rn at iv e re gi on al go ve rn me nt s wi th pa rt ic ul ar - iz ed po we rs no tw it hs ta nd in g an y sp ec if ic co ns ti tu ti on al pr in ci pl es au th or iz in g su ch g o v e r n m e n t un it s. T h e su bj ec t ma tt er of an in te rs ta te co mp ac t i s no t, th er ef or e, li mi te d b y an y sp ec if ic co ns ti tu ti on al re st ri ct io ns ; ra th er , as wi th an y “c on tr ac t, ” th e su bj ec t ma tt er i s la rg el y le ft to th e di sc re ti on of th e pa rt ie s, in th is ca se th e m e m b e r st at es a n d Co ng re ss i n th e ex er ci se of it s co ns en t au th or - it y, if ap pl ic ab le . A s wi ll be di sc us se d in gr ea te r de ta il , w h e n it ap pr ov es a co mp ac t, Co ng re ss ex er ci se s th e le gi sl at iv e po we rt h a t th e co mp ac t th re at en s t o en cr oa ch up on , a n d de cl ar es th at th e c o m p a c t is co ns is te nt wi th Co ng re ss ’s s u p r e m e po we ri n th at ar ea . Th is i s , in ef fe ct , th e on ly re st ri ct io n o n ei th er th e co mp ac ti ng pr oc es so r sp ec if ic su bj ec t ma tt er of th e ag re em en t s h o r t of fi nd in g th e c o m p a c t it se lf un co ns ti tu ti on al . Ac co rd in gl y, ju st as Co ng re ss m a y it se lf en ac t a la w th at in te rf er es wi th in te rs ta te c o m m e r c e , fo r ex am pl e, it m a y al so gi ve a p p r o v a l to a mu lt i- st at e c o m p a c t in te rf er in g w i t h in te rs ta te c o m m e r c e . * * C o m p a c t s ca n, th er ef or e, af fe ct na ti on al in te re st s, bu t ge ne ra ll y on ly in th os e ca se s w h e r e Co ng re ss co ns en ts . B e c a u s e o f th e b r o a d n a t u r e o f th e c o m p a c t in st ru me nt , it is di ff ic ul t to ca te go ri ze ne at ly or wi th gr ea t sp ec if ic it y th e ty pe s of c o m p a c t s no wi n ef - fe ct . S o m e ha ve tr ie d to ca te go ri ze c o m p a c t s al on gv e r y fi ne l i n e s of de li ne a- ti on , su ch as fa ci li ti es (b ri dg es an d tu nn el s) , ma rk et in g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t (p ro mo ti ng sa le of ag ri cu lt ur al pr od uc ts ), or lo tt er y (t o ad mi ni st er in te rs ta te lo tt er ie s) , to n a m e ju st a f e w ex am pl es . In fa ct , s o m e br oa de r ge ne ra li za ti on s or ch ar ac te ri za ti on s ca n be ma de t h a t es se nt ia ll y di vi de c o m p a c t s in to th re e ca te go ri es . Pe rh ap s th e m o s t fa mi li ar c o m p a c t s ar e bo un da ry co mp ac ts , w h i c h es ta bl is h of fi ci al bo rd er s b e t w e e n st at es . E x a m p l e s of su ch co mp ac ts i n c l u d e th e Vi rg in ia -T en ne ss ee Bo un da ry Ag re em en t of 18 03 , th e Ar iz on a- Ca li fo rn ia 33 . Se at tl e Ma st er Bu il de rs As s' n v. Pa c. N . W . El ec . P o w e r & Co ns er va ti on P l a n n i n g Co un ci l, 7 8 6 F . 2 d 1 3 5 9 (9 th Ci r. 19 86 ). 34 . In ta ke W a t e r Co . v . Y e l l o w s t o n e R i v e r C o m p a c t C o m m ' n , 5 9 0 F. S u p p . 2 9 3 (D . Mo nt . 19 83 ). SES AE 3 AERCRS aaANTApRe oe AThe G e n e r a l L a w q d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 13 ‘B ou nd ar y Co mp ac t of 19 63 , th e Mi ss ou ri -N eb ra sk a Bo un da ry C o m p a c t of -1 99 9, an d th e Vi rg in ia -W es t Vi rg in ia B o u n d a r y C o m p a c t of 19 98 . S u c h c o m - pa ct s ar e in te nd ed to re so lv e ou ts ta nd in g ju ri sd ic ti on al qu es ti on s b e t w e e n in e me mb er s t a t e s an d pr ov id e th e on ly m e a n s fo r ad ju st in g b or de rs gi ve n e so ve re ig n st at us of st at es . B o u n d a r y co mp ac ts ar e tr ul y on e- sh ot ag re e- me nt s in th e se ns et h a t th ey d o no t ca ll fo r th e cr ea ti on of on go in g ad mi ni s- tr at iv e ag en ci es bu t ne ve rt he le ss re so lv e an in te rs ta te di sp ut e wi th a hi gh de gr ee of fi na li ty . S u c h co mp ac ts ar e, in th e en d, th e si mp le st co mp ac ts to im pl em en t be ca us e of th e im me di at e p e r m a n e n c y of th e ou tc om e, al th ou gh th e ne go ti at io ns to re ac h co ns en su s ca n b e qu it e co nt en ti ou s. It is im po rt an t to no te th at b o u n d a r y c o m p a c t s ca n ha ve fa r- re ac hi ng ef fe ct s. W h i l e pe rh ap s si mp le in th ei r im me di at e im pl em en ta ti on , b o u n d a r y co mp ac ts ca n im pl ic at e a w i d e ar ra y of ma tt er s ex te nd in g to su ch is su es as fi sh in g ri gh ts , ta xi ng au th or it y, l a w e n f o r c e m e n t , tr an sp or ta ti on , a n d th e li ke . Fo r ex am pl e, th e Co as ta l Z o n e M a n a g e m e n t A c t o f 19 72 * re li ed u p o n ex is t- in g or am en de d in te rs ta te co mp ac ts an d th e pr in ci pl e of de li mi na ti on to de - te rm in e wh et he r of fs ho re re so ur ce de ve lo pm en t w a s “a dj ac en t” t o a st at e. Th is de te rm in at io n w a s im po rt an t be ca us e un de r th e Co as ta l E n e r g y I m p a c t P r o g r a m ( C E I P ) , fe de ra l fi na nc ia l as si st an ce w a s av ai la bl e to th os e co as ta l st at es of f w h o s e sh or es re so ur ce d e v e l o p m e n t w a s be in g co nd uc te d o n th e ou te r co nt in en ta l sh el f. “ A s a re su lt , th e ge og ra ph ic al de sc ri pt io n of t h e ar ea s “a dj ac en t” to ea ch co as ta l st at e an d th e us e of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts or ju di ci al de te rm in at io ns ha d a di re ct im pa ct on th e a m o u n t of fu nd s a st at e co ul d re al iz e fr om th e pr og ra m. B o u n d a r y co mp ac ts a r e no t in co ns eq ue nt ia l. A se co nd ca te go ry of co mp ac ts is “a dv is or y” co mp ac ts . S u c h c o m p a c t s ar e m o r e ak in to ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag re em en ts b e t w e e n st at es , pr im ar il y be ca us e th ey la ck fo rm al en fo rc em en t m e c h a n i s m s an d ar e de si gn ed no t to ac tu al ly re so lv e an in te rs ta te ma tt er , bu t si mp ly to st ud y su ch ma tt er s. A n ex am pl e o f su ch a co mp ac t i s th e D e l m a r v a Pe ni ns ul a Ad vi so ry Co un ci l C o m p a c t b e - tw ee n De la wa re , Ma ry la nd , an d Vi rg in ia .’ W h i l e cr ea ti ng a fo rm al in te rs ta te bo dy , th is co mp ac t l i m i t s th e co un ci l to id en ti fy in g th e pe rc ei ve d re gi on al pr ob le ms ; fi nd in g so lu ti on s th at i m p r o v e e c o n o m i c co nd it io ns , qu al it y of 35 . 16 U. S. C. § 14 56 a( b) (4 )( B) (1 97 6) . 36 . T h e Co as ta l En er gy Im pa ct Pr og ra m (C EI P) w a s es ta bl is he d un de r th e Co as ta l Z o n e M a n a g e m e n t A c t o f 19 72 , Pu b. L. N o . 92 -5 83 , § 30 8, 8 6 St at . 12 80 , as a m e n d e d b y Co as ta l Z o n e M a n a g e m e n t A c t A m e n d m e n t s of 19 76 , Pu b. L. N o . 94 -3 70 , § 7, 9 0 St at . 1 0 1 3 (c od if ie d at 16 U . S . C . § 1 4 5 1 (1 97 9) ). 37 . D E L . C o v e An n. ti t. 29 , § 1 1 1 0 1 (2 00 3) ; V a . C o p e An n. § 2 . 2 - 5 8 0 0 (2 00 3) . 14 Ch ap te r I li fe , an d en vi ro nm en ta l co nc er ns of th e D e l m a r v a Pe ni ns ul a; a n d re po rt in g th e fi nd in gs to th e st at es ’ le ad er s. By t h e i r ve ry te rm s, ad vi so ry c o m p a c t s ce de no st at e so ve re ig nt y no r de le ga te an y go ve rn in g p o w e r to a co mp ac t- cr ea te d ag en cy . A s su ch , ad vi - so ry c o m p a c t s ge ne ra ll y d o no t re qu ir e co ng re ss io na l co ns en t be ca us e th ey d o no t co nt ri bu te to po li ti ca l co mb in at io ns th at w o u l d be de tr im en ta l to th e s u p r e m a c y of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . H o w e v e r , st at es m a y se ek fe de ra l pa r- ti ci pa ti on in ad vi so ry c o m p a c t s ou t of co nc er n th at th e en dr e s u l t of th e st ud y m a y Je ad to ag re em en ts th at im pa ct fe de ra l in te re st s— fo r ex am pl e, st ud ie s th at m a y le ad to ag re em en ts o n m a n a g e m e n t o f na vi ga bl e ri ve rs or ri pa ri an ri gh ts . Se ek in g fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n in th is co nt ex t m a y be pr ec au ti on ar y a n d pr ud en t; it is no t, ho we ve r, le ga ll y re qu ir ed or ab so lu te ly ne ce ss ar y if th e e n d re su lt is me re ly ad vi so ry to th e m e m b e r st at es . Co ng re ss m a y e v e n p r o m o t e su ch ad vi so ry co mp ac ts , as it ar gu ab ly di d b y cr ea ti ng th e No rt he rn Gr ea t Pl ai ns Re gi on al Au th or it y, ch ar gi ng th at b o d y wi th de ve lo pi ng a n d co or di - na ti ng e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t pl an s an d m a k i n g ap pr op ri at e r e c o m m e n d a - ti on s to th e st at es an d fe de ra l go ve rn me nt .* * H o w e v e r , on e mu st di st in gu is h b e t w e e n fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n in an ad vi so ry co mp ac t a n d t h e ne ed to ob ta in co ng re ss io na l co ns en t to su ch co mp ac ts . W h i l e th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t m a y b e a pa rt ic ip an t, it is qu es ti on ab le wh et he r co ng re ss io na l co ns en t, ev en if gr an te d, w o u l d h a v e a n y le ga l im pa ct be ca us e of th e no nb in di ng ad vi so ry na tu re of th e ag re em en t. Fi na ll y, th e br oa de st an d la rg es t ca te go ry of in te rs ta te c o m p a c t m a y b e ca ll ed “r eg ul at or y” or “a dm in is tr at iv e” co mp ac ts . S u c h co mp ac ts , w h i c h ar e la rg el y a de ve lo pm en t o f th e tw en ti et h ce nt ur y, e m b r a c e wi de -r an gi ng t o p i c s , in cl ud in g re gi on al pl an ni ng an d de ve lo pm en t, cr im e co nt ro l, ag ri cu lt ur e, fl oo d co nt ro l, w a t e r - r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t , ed uc at io n, m e n t a l he al th , ju ve ni le de li n- qu en cy , ch il d su pp or t, a n d so fo rt h. E x a m p l e s of su ch co mp ac ts in cl ud e th e S o u t h e m Da ir y C o m p a c t ” (r eg ul at e a n d pr ov id e re gi on al pr ic e su pp or t fo r da ir ie s) ; th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n (r eg ul at e th e m o v e m e n t o f ad ul t of fe nd er s ac ro ss s t a t e li ne s) ; th e M i d w e s t R a d i o a c t i v e W a s t e 38 . 7 U. S. C. § 20 09 bb -1 (2 00 3) . 39 . T h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of th e fe de ra ll y f u n d e d f a r m bi ll p r o g r a m — t h e M i l k I n c o m e L o s s C o n t r a c t ( M I L C ) , 7 C. F. R. § 1 4 3 0 . 2 0 2 ( 2 0 0 4 ) — - b y th e U. S. De pa rt me nt o f Ag ri cu lt ur e on A u g u s t 13 , 20 02 , su pe rs ed ed st at e pr ic e su p- po rt a n d m a r k e t i n g le gi sl at io n, in cl ud in g se ve ra l da ir y c o m p a c t s . C o n s e - qu en tl y, st at e da ir y c o m p a c t s ma yb e l i s t e d as d o r m a n t . H o w e v e r , t h i s fe de ra l pr og ra m ru ns th ro ug h Se pt em be r 30 , 20 05 , at w h i c h ti me st at e da ir y c o m - pa ct s m a y be re ac ti va te d. eos wa este Pi nat SHES sas, 2, JOoyeWTadTh e Ge ne ra l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es Go ve rn in g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 15 Di sp os al C o m p a c t (r eg ul at e ra di oa ct iv e wa st e di sp os al ); th e C o l u m b i a Ri ve r Go rg e Co mp ac t ( z o n i n g re gu la ti on , pl an ni ng an d de ve lo pm en t) ; th e In te rs ta te Mi ni ng C o m p a c t (e st ab li sh a c o m m i s s i o n to p r o m o t e co ns er va ti on an d st an - da rd s fo r la nd re st or at io n, an d pr om ot e na tu ra l re so ur ce de ve lo pm en t) ; th e Ta ho e Re gi on al Pl an ni ng Co mp ac t (c re at es an ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag en cy an d re gu - Ja te s la nd us e, de ve lo pm en t, an dr i p a r i a n ri gh ts in th e L a k e T a h o e Ba si n) ; an d th e Wa sh in gt on Me tr op ol it an A r e a Tr an si t Re gu la ti on Co mp ac t (r eg ul at es pa s- se ng er tr an sp or ta ti on by p r i v a t e ca rr ie r) . Pe rh ap s th e be st -k no wn an d fi rs t tr ul y “r eg ul at or y” co mp ac t i s th e 19 21 Po rt Au th or it y of N e w Y o r k - N e w Je rs ey Co mp ac t, w h i c h pr ov id es jo in t ag en cy re gu la ti on of tr an sp or ta ti on , te rm in al , c o m m e r c e , a n d tr ad e fa ci li ti es in th e N e w Y o r k Ci ty m e t r o p o l i t a n ar ea . T h e N e w Y o r k - N e w Je rs ey Po rt Au th or it y C o m p a c t re pr es en ts th e be gi nn in g of a sh if t in th e us e of co mp ac ts a w a y f r o m m a k i n g bo rd er ad ju st me nt s a n d to wa rd re gu la ti ng a br oa d cl as s of in te rs ta te ac ti vi ti es th ro ug h th e cr ea ti on of su pr a- st at e, su b- fe de ra l ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag en ci es . Al th ou gh bo un da ry an d ad vi so ry co mp ac ts co nt in ue to ex is t, a n d b o u n d - ar y co mp ac ts co nt in ue to be us ed on ani rr eg ul ar ba si s, i t is th e ad mi ni st ra ti ve co mp ac t th at ha s b e c o m e th e su bj ec t of gr ea t in te re st in re ce nt ye ar s. “° A d - mi ni st ra ti ve co mp ac ts e m p o w e r th e m e m b e r st at es , ac ti ng in th ei r jo in t an d co ll ec ti ve ca pa ci ty , to pr ov id e co or di na te d re gu la ti on on a b r o a d ra ng e of ac ti vi ti es la rg el y wi th ou t re ga rd to st at e bo rd er s. M o s t im po rt an t, m a n y ad - mi ni st ra ti ve co mp ac ts ha ve gi ve n ri se to in de pe nd en t an d on go in g ad mi ni s- -t ra ti ve ag en ci es , su ch as th e N e w Y o r k - N e w Je rs ey Po rt Au th or it y, th at o c c u p y a un iq ue sp ac e in th e de si gn of A m e r i c a n go ve rn me nt . S u c h co mm is si on s a r e ne it he r fe de ra l in na tu re no r st at e in sc op e. Ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s ha ve cr ea te d po we rf ul go ve rn in g c o m m i s s i o n s ap pr op ri at el y de sc ri be d as a “t hi rd ti er ” of go ve rn me nt , a ti er th at oc cu pi es th at sp ac e b e t w e e n th e sp he re of fe de ra l au th or it y an d th e sp he re of in di vi du al st at e au th or it y. 1. 2. 2. C o n t r a c t s B e t w e e n S t a t e s In de fi ni ng th e na tu re of co mp ac ts , it is pe rh ap s m o r e us ef ul to de fi ne wh at t h e y ar e no t. W h i l e en ac te d vi rt ua ll y id en ti ca ll y b y ev er y pa rt y st at e’ s le gi sl at iv e bo dy , c o m p a c t s ar e n o t u n i f o r m l a w s or m o d e l l a w s as t h o s e t e r m s ar e ty pi ca ll y un de rs to od i n th e le ga l co mm un it y. U n i f o r m l a w s — — s u c h as th e 40 . O n e of th e mo st re ce nt bo un da ry co mp ac ts i s th e Mi ss ou ri -N eb ra sk a Bo un d- ar y C o m p a c t , w h i c h so ug ht t o ad dr es ss ta te -l in e is su es as a re su lt of c h a n g e s in th e ch an ne l of th e Mi ss ou ri Ri ve r. Se e Pu b. L. No . 10 6- 10 1, 11 3 St at . 13 33 (1 99 9) . Se e al so R e d Ri ve r Bo un da ry Co mp ac t, Pu b. L. No . 10 6- 28 8, 11 4 St at . 91 9 (2 00 0) . m r 16 Ch ap te r 1 U n i f o r m C o m m e r c i a l C o d e , th e U n i f o r m P r o b a t e C o d e , a n d th e Gi ft s to M i n o r s A c t — a r e en ac te d la rg el y ve rb at im in ea ch st at e. M o d e l ac ts ar e de - si gn ed to se rv e as gu id el in e le gi sl at io n th at st at es ca n b o r r o w f r o m or a d a p t to su it th ei r in di vi du al ne ed s an d co nd it io ns . Pr om ul ga te d b y th e Na ti on al C o n - fe re nc e of C o m m i s s i o n e r s on U n i f o r m St at e L a w s , un if or m ac ts re pr es en t th e ou tc om e o f a n ef fo rt to st ud y a n d re vi ew th e la ws of t h e st at es an d de te r- m i n e w h i c h ar ea s sh ou ld be u n i f o r m b e t w e e n th e st at es . Le gi sl at ur es ar e ur ge d to ad op t un if or m ac ts ex ac tl y as wr it te n to p r o m o t e su ch un if or mi ty . Al th ou gh le gi sl at ur es ar e ur ge d to ad op t un if or m ac ts as wr it te n, th ey ar e no t re qu ir ed to do so a n d m a y m a k e ch an ge s t o f i t in di vi du al st at e ne ed s. U n i f o r m ac ts d o no t co ns ti tu te a co nt ra ct be tw ee n t h e st at es , ev en if ad op te d b y al l st at es in th e s a m e f o r m , a n d th us , u n l i k e co nt ra ct s, ar e n o t b i n d i n g u p o n o r e n f o r c e a b l e a g a i n s t th e st at es . E a c h st at e re ta in s c o m p l e t e au th or it y to un il at er al ly a m e n d or c h a n g e su ch co de s to me et it s un iq ue ci rc um st an ce s. T h e r e is n o pr oh ib it io n in u n i f o r m ac ts li mi ti ng th e ab il it y of st at e le gi sl a- tu re s to al te r pa rt ic ul ar pr ov is io ns as ti me s ch an ge o r t o ad dr es s th e pe cu li ar do me st ic po li ti ca l ci rc um st an ce s in a st at e. A st at e ma y, i n th e ex er ci se o f i t s au th or it y ov er in tr as ta te ma tt er s, a m e n d or re pe al a un if or m l a w in to ta l. A l t h o u g h th er e m a y b e a c o m m o n un de rs ta nd in g am on g s t a t e le gi sl at ur es th at un if or m ac ts re qu ir e un if or mi ty to b e ef fe ct iv e o n a na ti on al ba si s, th er e is n o le ga l co ns eq ue nc e t o a st at e ig no ri ng th e de si re or ne ed fo r su ch un if or - mi ty . T h e fa il ur e of a st at e to en ac t or ma in ta in “u ni fo rm it y” ca rr ie s n o le ga l co ns eq ue nc e; o n e st at e ca nn ot su e an ot he r s t a t e in th e U. S. S u p r e m e Co ur t fo r d a m a g e s or en fo rc em en t o f a un if or mi ty re qu ir em en t. Co ns eq ue nt ly , th er e ex is t va ri at io ns be tw ee n st at es in th ei r re sp ec ti ve ve rs io ns of th e Un if or m C o m m e r c i a l C o d e . I t is n o t u n c o m m o n , t h e r e f o r e , to f i n d m a n y “ u n i f o r m ” la ws di st in ct ly no n- un if or m w h e n co mp ar ed o n st at e- to -s ta te ba si s. Ne it he r ar e c o m p a c t s ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag re em en ts b e t w e e n st at e ag en ci es e n t e r e d in to to e a s e th e f l o w o f c o m m e r c e , in fo rm at io n, o r th e li ke ac ro ss st at e li ne s. S u c h ag re em en ts , fr eq ue nt ly cr ea te d by c o m p a r a b l e st at e ex ec u- ti ve ag en ci es , us ua ll y su bj ec t to so me p r i o r le gi sl at iv e ap pr ov al , h a v e li mi te d ap pl ic at io n a n d ef fe ct . Fo r ex am pl e, th e Pe nn sy lv an ia st at e le gi sl at ur e ha s sp ec if ic al ly au th or iz ed th e ex ec ut io n of ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag re em en ts b e t w e e n it s st at e ag en ci es an d th os e of ot he r st at es fo r th e pu rp os e of a i r po ll ut io n co nt ro l. *' A re ci pr oc it y pr ov is io n of an ac t th at em po we rs a se cr et ar y of s ta te to as ce rt ai n w h i c h st at es gr an t re ci pr oc it y to ot he r re si de nt s an d to e m b o d y th e fi nd in gs in th e of fi ci al f o r m of a “r ec ip ro ci ty ag re em en t” do es no t r i s e to 41 . O n e ex am pl e o f a le gi sl at iv el y au th or iz ed ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag re em en t c a n be fo un d a t , 3 5 Pa . C o n s . St ar . § 4 1 0 3 (2 00 3) . AiFO DP SERTLTOREVENETOELARABH GideSTEERheSE, T h e G e n e r a l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 1 7 th e le ve l of a fo rm al in te rs ta te c o m p a c t su ch as to fa ll wi th in th e d o m a i n of th e C o m p a c t Cl au se .“ ? St at ut es cr ea ti ng an ex ec ut iv e de pa rt me nt m a y al so en ab le su ch de pa rt me nt st o en te r in to re ci pr oc al ag re em en ts wi th ot he rs ta te s ag en ci es wi th ou t fu rt he r ac ti on b y a st at e le gi sl at ur e. S u c h ag re em en ts ar e su bj ec t to a m e n d m e n t th ro ug h th e ad mi ni st ra ti ve pr oc es s a n d ar e cl ea rl y su b- je ct to un il at er al c h a n g e b y in di vi du al m e m b e r st at es , ma in ly be ca us e a d m i n - is tr at iv e ag re em en ts , e v e n w h e n au th or iz ed by a s t a t e le gi sl at ur e, ca nn ot bi nd th e ha nd so f t h e le gi sl at ur e as to ch an gi ng th e su bs ta nt iv e la w at s o m e fu tu re po in t. a In te rs ta te c o m p a c t s h a v e qu al it ie s si mi la r to bo th un if or m la ws an d a d mi ni st ra ti ve ag re em en ts . T h e y ar e cl ea rl y un if or m b e t w e e n m e m b e r st at es as ev id en ce d b y th e en ac tm en t o f vi rt ua ll y id en ti ca l st at ut es b y th e le gi sl at ur es of ea ch m e m b e r st at e. Li ke wi se , m a n y m o d e r n c o m p a c t s ad dr es s ad mi ni st ra - ti ve ma tt er s an d fr eq ue nt ly cr ea te on go in g ag en ci es . C o m p a c t s m a y e v e n au th or iz e th e cr ea ti on of “s ub -c om pa ct ” re ci pr oc al ag re em en ts b e t w e e n m e m - be r st at es .“ * H o w e v e r , co mp ac ts ar e a fu nd am en ta l de pa rt ur e f r o m th e m o r e c o m m o n me ch an is ms o f st at e- ba se d ad ju st me nt st o in te rs ta te re la ti on so r th e cr ea ti on of un if or mi ty be tw ee ns t a t e s be ca us e th ey ar e fu nd am en ta ll y in st ru - me nt s fo r co nt ra ct ua ll y al lo ca ti ng co ll ec ti ve st at e go ve rn in g au th or it y. T h i s in t u n m a y re qu ir e th e m e m b e r s t a t e s to ce de a po rt io n of th ei r in di vi du al so ve re ig nt y fo r th e co ll ec ti ve g o o d of th e m e m b e r st at es . Th er ef or e, c o m - pa ct s, w h e n pr op er ly en ac te d, ar e fu ll y en fo rc ea bl e co nt ra ct s b e t w e e n th e m e m b e r s in ad di ti on to po ss es si ng le ga l st an di ng wi th in ea ch st at e, Un li ke ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag re em en ts or un if or m la ws , in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ar e th e so le ex am pl e of th e po we ro f on es t a t e le gi sl at ur e to bi nd al l fu tu re le gi sl at ur es to ce rt ai n pr in ci pl es go ve rn in g th e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e ag re em en t. T h e C o n - tr ac ts Cl au se of th e U. S. Co ns ti tu ti on pr oh ib it s th e im pa ir me nt o f co nt ra ct s, an d th at pr oh ib it io n ex te nd st o in te rs ta te co mp ac ts . Fo r ex am pl e, in th e ca se of th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n, al l m e m b e r st at es ar e b o u n d in a n e n f o r c e a b l e a g r e e m e n t g o v - er ni ng th e co nt ro ll ed m o v e m e n t o f ad ul t of fe nd er s ac ro ss st at e li ne s. A n y su bs eq ue nt le gi sl at iv e ac t b y a m e m b e r st at e, sh or t of ou tr ig ht re pe al pu rs u- an t to th e te rm s of th e co mp ac t, ca nn ot su bs ta nt iv el y c h a n g e th e na tu re of th e re la ti on sh ip be tw ee n th e m e m b e r st at es no rt h e go ve rn in g pr in ci pl es ou tl in ed in th e co mp ac t. I n ef fe ct , b y ag re ei ng to en te r in to a co mp ac t, m e m b e r st at es 42 . B o d e v. Ba rr et t, 1 0 6 N . E . 2 d 52 1 (I ll . 19 52 ). 43 . Ro be rt s To ba cc o Co . v. Mi ch ig an De p’ t of Re ve nu e, 34 N . W . 2 d 54 (M ic h. 19 48 ). 44 . St at e v. Ma nn in g, 53 2 N . W . 2 d 24 4 (M in n. 19 95 ). 18 Ch ap te rI co nt ra ct ua ll y ce de a po rt io n of t h e i r in di vi du al ju ri sd ic ti on , so ve re ig nt y, an d au th or it y ov er th e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e co mp ac t i n fa vo r of ce rt ai n go ve rn in g pr in ci pl es t h a t ap pl y co ll ec ti ve ly to al l m e m b e r st at es . A s ob se rv ed in He ll mu th v, W M A T A : “ U p o n en te ri ng in to an in te rs ta te co mp ac t, a st at e ef fe ct iv el y su rr en de rs a po rt io n of it s so ve re ig nt y; th e c o m p a c t go ve rn s t h e re la ti on s of th e pa rt ie s wi th re sp ec t t o th e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e ag re em en t an d i s su pe ri or to bo th pr io r an d su bs eq ue nt la w, Fu rt he r, w h e n en ac te d, a c o m p a c t co ns ti - tu te s no t on ly la w, bu t a co nt ra ct w h i c h m a y no t be a m e n d e d , mo di fi ed , or ot he rw is e al te re d wi th ou t th e co ns en t of al l pa rt ie s. It , th er ef or e, ap pe ar s se tt le d th at on e pa rt y m a y no t e na ct le gi sl at io n w h i c h w o u l d i m p o s e bu rd en s u p o n th e c o m p a c t ab se nt th e co nc ur re nc e of th e ot he r si gn at or ie s’ T h i s ce di ng of so ve re ig n au th or it y is a vi ta l co ns id er at io n in de te rm in in g wh et he r an in te rs ta te ag re em en t ri se s t o th e le ve l of an en fo rc ea bl e in te rs ta te co mp ac t. It is a co nc es si on to al l m e m b e r s t a t e s th at an in di vi du al st at e ca nn ot su bs e- qu en tl y al te r ab se nt an ou tr ig ht re pe al of th e ag re em en t ( i f pe rm it te d) or th e co ns en t o f a l l ot he r m e m b e r st at es . T h e co nt ra ct ua l na tu re of c o m p a c t s is ev id en ce d b y th e pr in ci pl es un de rl y- in g th ei r ad op ti on . In te rs ta te co mp ac ts ar e in it ia te d w h e n m e m b e r st at es ad op t en ab li ng st at ut es . T h e ac t of ad op ti on of su ch st at ut es cr ea te s co nt ra ct ua l ob li - ga ti on s b e t w e e n th e st at es . Th er e is a n of fe r (a pr op os al to en ac t vi rt ua ll y v e r b a t i m st at ut es b y e a c h m e m b e r s t a t e ) , a n a c c e p t a n c e (e na ct me nt o f t h e s t a t - ut es b y th e m e m b e r s t a t e s ) , a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n (t he se tt le me nt o f a di sp ut e, cr ea ti on of an as so ci at io n, or s o m e m e c h a n i s m to ad dr es s an is su e of mu tu al in te re st ). M a n y co mp ac ts al so co nt ai n pr ov is io ns fo r wi th dr aw al or te rm in a- ti on .“ C o m p a c t s ar e m o s t of te n en te re d b y st at e le gi sl at ur es ad op ti ng vi rt ua ll y id en ti ca l st at ut es . Ho we ve r, co mp ac ts ca n al so be ac ti va te d b y le gi sl at iv e ac ts au th or iz in g en tr y in to fo rc e by ad mi ni st ra ti ve ac ti on . Fo r ex am pl e, th e N o n - 45 . H e l l m u t h v. W a s h . M e t r o . A r e a Tr an si t Au th ., 4 1 4 F. S u p p . 40 8, 4 0 9 (D . M d . 19 76 ). 46 . F o r e x a m p l e , Ar ti cl e XI I, Se ct io n A of th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r A d u l t O f f e n d e r Su pe rv is io n ( “ I C A O S ” ) pr ov id es , “ O n c e ef fe ct iv e, th e C o m p a c t sh al l co nt in ue in fo rc e an d re ma in bi nd in g up on ea ch an d ev er y C o m p a c t - in g St at e; P R O V I D E D , t h a t a C o m p a c t i n g St at e m a y w i t h d r a w f r o m th e C o m p a c t (“ Wi th dr aw in g St at e” ) b y en ac ti ng a st at ut e sp ec if ic al ly re pe al - i n g t h e st at ut e w h i c h e n a c t e d t h e C o m p a c t i n t o l a w . ” T h e p r o v i s i o n g o e s o n to de sc ri be th e p r o c e d u r e b y w h i c h a st at e ac tu al ly w i t h d r a w s in cl ud in g no ti ce re qu ir em en ts , th e ef fe ct iv e da te of wi th dr aw , a n d st at e’ s po st -w it h- d r a w a l re sp on si bi li ti es re ga rd in g as se ss me nt s, li ab il it ie s, a n d ob li ga ti on s. ASSSScresee peskySTAREereAK UrTET aneLNTBFE + } oe rrien ycl Th e Ge ne ra l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es Go ve rn in g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 19 re si de nt Vi ol at or Co mp ac t o f 19 77 sp ec if ic al ly pr ov id es th at th e co mp ac t m a y be en te re d in to fo rc e “b y re so lu ti on of ra ti fi ca ti on , ex ec ut ed b y au th or iz ed of fi ci al s of th e ap pl yi ng ju ri sd ic ti on .” Ho we ve r, th e la ng ua ge of th e co mp ac t mu st sp ec if ic al ly pr ov id e a m e c h a n i s m fo r en tr y in to fo rc e by ad mi ni st ra ti ve ac ti on fo r th e co mp ac t t o b e va li d an d bi nd in g. I f a st at e us es an ad mi ni st ra ti ve ac t wi th ou t sp ec if ic co mp ac t au th or iz at io n, th e co mp ac t m a y be nu ll an d vo id as to th at st at e. Fo r ex am pl e, th e Dr iv er s Li ce ns e C o m p a c t of 19 61 sp ec if ic al ly pr ov id ed th at th e c o m p a c t “ e n t e r [ s ] in to fo rc e a n d b e c o m e s ef fe ct iv e as to a n y st at e w h e n it h a s e n a c t e d th e [ C o m p a c t ] in to l a w . ’ T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a S u p r e m e Co ur t he ld in Su ll iv an v. De pa rt me nt o f Tr an sp or ta ti on th at th e c o m p a c t w a s no t in ef fe ct in th at st at e be ca us e the le gi sl at ur e en ac te d a st at ut e em po we ri ng th e se cr et ar y of th e de pa rt me nt o f tr an sp or ta ti on to en te r in to th e c o m p a c t ra th er th an en ac tt h e sp ec if ic la ng ua ge o f th e co mp ac t a s re qu ir ed .” In re ac hi ng it s co nc lu si on ,t h e co ur t he ld th at si nc e th e c o m p a c t w a s a co nt ra ct , Pe nn sy lv a- ni a la w re qu ir ed th e co ur t to in te rp re t th e co mp ac t wi th in th e fo ur -c or ne rs of th e in st ru me nt an d no wh er ei n th e in st ru me nt wa sa dm in is tr at iv e ac ti on au th o- ri ze d as a me an s o f ad op ti on . It is im po rt an t, th er ef or e, to ap pr ec ia te th at co mp ac ts ar é m o r e th an m e r e in te rg ov er nm en ta l ag re em en ts or in fo rm al ad mi ni st ra ti ve al li an ce s. A l t h o u g h pa ss ed b y st at e le gi sl at ur es in es se nt ia ll y th e s a m e fo rm , c o m p a c t s ar e no t ““ in if or m la ws ” as th at te rm is c o m m o n l y un de rs to od . W h i l e u n i f o r m ac ts un if y st at e la ws as to th os e st at es ad op ti ng th em , co mp ac ts pr ov id e th e en - fo rc em en t to ol s un if or m la ws l a c k , no t on ly as to th e po pu la ce bu ta l s o as to th e st at es th em se lv es . Co mp ac ts a r e , th er ef or e, a m o r e po we rf ul —a lb ei t c o m - pl ex —t oo l fo r pr om ot in g un if or m st at e be ha vi or as to th e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e co mp ac t. C o m p a c t s ar e bi nd in g le ga l co nt ra ct s wi th th ei r te rm s a n d co n- di ti on s co nt ro ll in g— ev en tr um pi ng —t he a c t i o n s an d co nd uc t o f t h e m e m b e r st at es co nc er ni ng th e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e c o m p a c t . As o n e co ur t ha s no te d: 47 . N o n r e s i d e n t Vi ol at or C o m p a c t , ar t. X I I (1 99 4) . 48 . Dr iv er s L i c e n s e C o m p a c t , ar t. X M ( a ) (1 99 4) . 49 . Su ll iv an v. D e p ’ t of Tr an sp ., 7 0 8 A . 2 d 4 8 1 (P a. 19 98 ). 50 . Se e, e. g. , Mi ss ou ri v. Il li no is , 2 0 0 U. S. 49 6, 5 1 9 (1 90 6) ( “ T h e c o m p a c t , b y th e sa nc ti on of Co ng re ss , h a d b e c o m e a la w of th e U n i o n . A st at e l a w w h i c h vi ol at ed it w a s un co ns ti tu ti on al .” ). S e e al so N e b r a s k a v. Ce nt ra l In te rs ta te L o w - L e v e l Ra di oa ct iv e W a s t e C o m m ’ n , 2 0 7 F. 3d 1 0 2 1 (8 th Ci r. 2 0 0 0 ) (S ta te ca nn ot un il at er al ly ex er ci se a ve to w h e n su ch i s no t au th or iz ed b y th e c o m - pa ct .) ; R h o d e Is la nd v. Ma ss ac hu se tt s, 3 7 U. S. 65 7, 7 2 5 ( 1 8 3 8 ) ( “ B y th is su rr en de r of th e po we r, wh ic h be fo re th e ad op ti on of th e co ns ti tu ti on w a s ve st ed in ev er y st at e * * * as in th e pl en it ud eo f t h e i r so ve re ig nt y th ey mi gh t; th ey c o u l d se tt le t h e m ne it he r b y wa r, or in pe ac e, b y tr ea ty , c o m p a c t o r 2 0 C h a p t e r 1 An in te rs ta te c o m p a c t fu nc ti on s as a co nt ra ct an d “t ak es pr ec ed en ce ov er st at ut or y la w in m e m b e r st at es .” Th e l a w o f in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s as in te rp re te d b y th e U. S. S u p r e m e Co ur t i s cl ea r th at in te rs ta te c o m - pa ct s ar e th e hi gh es t f o r m of st at e st at ut or y la w, ha vi ng pr ec ed en ce ov er co nf li ct in g st at e st at ut es [. ] H a v i n g en te re d in to a co nt ra ct , a pa rt ic ip an t st at e m a y no t un il at er al ly ch an ge i t s te rm s. °* ! T h e fa ct th at co mp ac ts a r e cr ea ti on s an d cr ea tu re s of in di vi du al st at e le gi s- la tu re s in n o w a y al te rs th ei r st at us as en fo rc ea bl e co nt ra ct ua l ob li ga ti on s be - t w e e n m e m b e r st at es . M a n y co mp ac ts co ns ti tu te an un mi st ak ab le su rr en de ri ng of st at e au th or it y th at is bi nd in g o n su bs eq ue nt s t a t e le gi sl at iv e ac ti on . S u c h co m pa c t s ar e, th er ef or e, ex am pl es of th e so -c al le d “u nm is ta ka bi li ty do ct ri ne ” at wo rk . T h e im pe tu s fo r th e m o d e r n un mi st ak ab il it y do ct ri ne is fo un d in Ch ie f Ju st ic e Ma rs ha ll ’s ap pl ic at io n of th e Co nt ra ct Cl au se to pu bl ic co nt ra ct s. Al th ou gh t h e cl au se m a d e it po ss ib le fo r st at e le gi sl at ur es to bi nd th ei r su cc es - so rs b y en te ri ng in to co nt ra ct s, it so on b e c a m e ap pa re nt th at su ch co nt ra ct s co ul d be co me a th re at to th e so ve re ig n re sp on si bi li ti es of st at e go ve rn me nt s. Ac co rd in gl y, co ur ts be ca me l e s s wi ll in g to re co gn iz e co nt ra ct ua lr es tr ai nt s u p o n le gi sl at iv e fr ee do m of ac ti on , an d t w o di st in ct li mi ta ti on s de ve lo pe dt o pr ot ec t St at e re gu la to ry po we rs . O n e c a m e to be kn ow n a s t h e “r es er ve d p o w e r s ” do c- tr in e, w h i c h he ld th at ce rt ai n su bs ta nt iv e p o w e r s of so ve re ig nt y co ul d no t be c o n t r a c t e d a w a y . T h e ot he r, w h i c h s u r f a c e d s o m e w h a t ea rl ie r, w a s a c a n o n o f co ns tr uc ti on di sf av or in g im pl ie d go ve rn me nt al ob li ga ti on si n pu bl ic co nt ra ct s. Un de r t h i s ru le , “a ll pu bl ic gr an ts ar e st ri ct ly co ns tr ue d. ”* ? Co ns eq ue nt ly , n o “ p o w e r of so ve re ig nt y, wi ll be he ld . . . to ha ve be en su rr en de re d, un le ss su ch su rr en de r ha s b e e n ex pr es se d in te rm st o o pl ai n to be mi st ak en .” *? M o s t ad mi n- is tr at iv e c o m p a c t s co ns ti tu te a n u n m i s t a k a b l e s u r r e n d e r i n g o f st at e p o w e r . ag re em en t, wi th ou t th e pe rm is si on of th e n e w le gi sl at iv e p o w e r w h i c h th e st at es br ou gh t in to ex is te nc e by th ei r re sp ec ti ve an d se ve ra l gr an ts in co n- ve nt io ns o f th e pe op le . If C o n g r e s s co ns en te d, th en th e st at es w e r e int h i s re sp ec t re st or ed to th ei r or ig in al in he re nt so ve re ig nt y; s u c h c o n s e n t be in g th e so le li mi ta ti on im po se d by th e co ns ti tu ti on , w h e n gi ve n, le ft th e st at es as th ey w e r e be fo re * * * w h e r e b y th ei r c o m p a c t s be ca me o f b i n d i n g fo rc e, an d fi na ll y se tt le d th e bo un da ry be tw ee n th em ; op er at in g wi th th e s a m e ef fe ct as a tr ea ty b e t w e e n so ve re ig n po we rs .” ). 51 . D o e v. Wa rd , 12 4 F. Su pp .2 d 90 0, 91 4- 15 (W .D . Pa . 20 00 ), ci ti ng M c C o m b v. W a m b a u g h , 93 4 F. 2d 47 4, 47 9 (3 d Ci r. 19 91 ). 52 . T h e D e l a w a r e Ra il ro ad Ta x, 8 5 U . S . 2 0 6 (1 87 4) . 53 . Je ff er so n B r a n c h Ba nk v . Sk el ly , 6 6 U. S. 4 3 6 (1 86 2) . T h e G e n e r a l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 2 1 A s a co nt ra ct , th e te rm s an d co nd it io ns of th e c o m p a c t de fi ne ea ch pa rt y -g ta te ’s re sp on si bi li ty . Fo r ex am pl e, on e te rm co nt ai ne d in th e c o m p a c t cr ea ti ng th e Me tr op ol it an Wa sh in gt on Ai rp or t Au th or it y is a re qu ir em en tt h a t or ig in al ur is di ct io n ov er c o m p a c t ma tt er s is ve st ed in th e co ur ts of Vi rg in ia an d th at th e a ou rs “s ha ll in al l ca se s ap pl y th e la w of th e C o m m o n w e a l t h of Vi rg in ia .” Pu rs ua nt t o th e co mp ac t, th e pa rt y st at es —i n th is ca se Vi rg in ia an d th e Di st ri ct of C o l u m b i a — h a v e co nt ra ct ua ll y a g r e e d th at Vi rg in ia l a w sh al l b e co nt ro ll in g an d th at th e co ur ts of Vi rg in ia wi ll be th e ch oi ce of f o r u m fo r re so lv in gl it ig a- ti on ma tt er s. Mo re ov er , ev en i f su it is br ou gh ti n fe de ra l co ur t, th e pa rt y st at es ha ve ag re ed th at th e fe de ra l co ur ts wi ll ap pl y Vi rg in ia la w in an y di sp ut e or li ti ga ti on . In ap pr ov in g th is co mp ac t, Co ng re ss co ns en te dt o th es e ch oi ce of la w pr ov is io ns as bi nd in g el em en ts in th e ag re em en t. *> Th er ef or e, ju st as a co nt ra ct be tw ee np r i v a t e pa rt ie s ca n va li dl y co nt ai n ch oi ce of la w an d ch oi ce of f o r u m pr ov is io ns , s o to o c a n a n in te rs ta te c o m p a c t . Th is is no t to sa y, ho we ve r, th at co mp ac ts ar e co nt ra ct s on pa r wi th c o m - me rc ia l ag re em en ts . Al th ou gh te rm ed a “c on tr ac t” an d ef fe ct ua te d b y of fe r, ac ce pt an ce an d co ns id er at io n, in te rs ta te co mp ac ts re pr es en ta po li ti ca l c o m p r o - mi se be tw ee n co ns ti tu en t el em en ts of th e Un io n. S u c h ag re em en ts ar e ma de t o ad dr es s in te re st s an d pr ob le ms th at do no t co in ci de ea si ly wi th th e na ti on al bo un da ri es o r st at e li ne s— in te re st s th at m a y be ba dl y se rv ed or no t se rv ed a t al l by th e or di na ry ch an ne ls of na ti on al o r st at e po li ti ca l ac ti on . B y en te ri ng in to a co mp ac t, th e m e m b e r st at es co nt ra ct ua ll y ag re e o n ce ri ai n pr in ci pl es a n d ru le s co nc em in g th e ex er ci se of jo in t go ve rn in g au th or it y ov er th e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e co mp ac t. A s no te d in He ss v. Po rt Au th or it y Tr an s- Hu ds on Co rp or at io n, “{ a] n in te rs ta te co mp ac t, b y it s ve ry na tu re , sh if ts a pa rt of a st at e’ s au th or it y to an ot he rs t a t e or st at es , or to th e a g e n c y th e se ve ra ls t a t e s jo in tl y cr ea te to r u n th e co mp ac t. ” F o r ex am pl e, in a bo un da ry co mp ac t, th e m e m b e r st at es ag re e to ce rt ai n pr in ci pl es di vi di ng th ei r re sp ec ti ve go ve rn in g au th or it y ov er a di s- pu te d bo un da ry . In ef fe ct , th ey co nt ra ct ed a w a y th ei r re sp ec ti ve so ve re ig nt y te la ti ve to ce rt ai n pa rc el s of la nd . W h i l e on e mi gh t ar gu et h a t t h e co ns id er at io n fo r a bo un da ry co mp ac ti s th e la nd , th e ac tu al co ns id er at io ni s th e re al lo ca ti on of go ve rn in g au th or it y be tw ee n th e t w o st at es b y se tt li ng a di sp ut e ov er a ge og ra ph ic al bo un da ry . Li ke wi se , in th e ad op ti on of m a n y ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m - pa ct s, th e m e m b e r st at es ha ve co ll ec ti ve ly an d co nt ra ct ua ll y ag re ed to re al lo - ca te go ve rn in g au th or it y a w a y fr om in di vi du al st at és to a mu lt il at er al re la ti on sh ip 54 . Va . C o p e AN N. § 5. 1- 17 3( A) (2 00 3) ; D. C. C o v e An n. § 9- 90 1e t se q. (2 00 3) . 55 . Wa sh in gt on -D ul le s Tr an sp or t. Li d. v. Me tr o. Wa sh . Ai rp or ts Au th ., 26 3 F. 3d . 3 7 1 (4 th Ci r. 20 01 ). 56 . He ss v. Po rt Au th . Tr an s- Hu ds on Co rp ., 51 3 U. S. 3 0 , 42 (1 99 4) . 2 2 Ch ap te r 1 de fi ne d b y c o m m o n l y ac ce pt ed pr in ci pl es . D e p e n d i n g on t h e te rm so f th e c o m - pa ct , st at es m a y ef fe ct iv el y c e d e a po rt io n o f th ei r in di vi du al so ve re ig nt y o v e r th e su bj ec t of th e ag re em en t. A pe rf ec t e x a m p l e of st at es ce di ng th ei r so ve re ig nt y th ro ug h an i nt er st at e c o m p a c t ca n be fo un d in Ar ti cl e XI V, Se ct io ns A an d B of t h e In te rs ta te C o m - pa ct fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n. T h e s e t w o se ct io ns of th e c o m p a c t pr o- vi de , in pa rt , th at (1 ) “[ a] l] c o m p a c t i n g St at es ’ l a w s co nf li ct in g w i t h th is C o m p a c t ar e su pe rs ed ed t o th e ex te nt of th e co nf li ct ;” an d (2 ) “A ll la wf ul ac ti on s of th e In te rs ta te C o m m i s s i o n , in cl ud in g al l Ru le s an d By -l aw s pr om ul ga te d b y th e In te rs ta te C o m m i s s i o n , ar e bi nd in g u p o n th e C o m p a c t i n g St at es .” T h e c o m p a c t fu rt he r p r o v i d e s th at , “A ll a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n th e In te rs ta te C o m m i s s i o n a n d th e C o m p a c t i n g St at es ar e bi nd in g in ac co rd an ce wi th th ei r te rm s. ” T h e dr af t- er s of th e co mp ac t d i d pr ov id e t w o es ca pe cl au se s co nc er ni ng th e bi nd in g ef fe ct of th e co mp ac t an d i t s ru le s. Fi rs t, to th e ex te nt th at a pr ov is io n of th e c o m p a c t ex ce ed s th e co ns ti tu ti on al li mi ta ti on s i m p o s e d on t h e le gi sl at ur e of an y c o m - pa ct in g s ta te , “t he du ti es , po we rs or ju ri sd ic ti on so ug ht to b e co nf er re d b y su ch pr ov is io n u p o n th e In te rs ta te C o m m i s s i o n sh al l be in ef fe ct iv e a n d su ch ob li ga - ti on s, du ti es , po we rs or ju ri sd ic ti on sh al l re ma in in th e C o m p a c t i n g St at e. ” Se co nd , a ru le of th e c o m m i s s i o n m a y be re je ct ed b y a ma jo ri ty vo te of th e m e m b e r st at es ’ le gi sl at ur es . T h e s e ar e, ho we ve r, th e on ly m e a n s by w h i c h a st at e’ s so ve re ig n in te re st s m a y b e pr ot ec te d f r o m th e ac ti on s of th e c o m m i s - si on , th e st at es ha vi ng ge ne ra ll y c e d e d to th e c o m m i s s i o n th ei r so ve re ig nt y © ov er th e in te rs ta te m o v e m e n t of ad ul t of fe nd er s. * O n c e en te re d, th e te rm s of th e c o m p a c t an d an y ru le s a n d re gu la ti on s au th or iz ed b y th e c o m p a c t ca n, to th e ex te nt pr ov id ed in th e ag re em en t, su pe rs ed e an y su bs ta nt iv e st at e la ws th at m a y be i n co nf li ct , in cl ud in g ev en st at e co ns ti tu ti on al pr ov is io ns . U n d e r th e C o m p a c t Cl au se , th e fe de ra l qu es - ti on s ar e th e ex ec ut io n, va li di ty , a n d m e a n i n g o f fe de ra ll y a p p r o v e d st at e co mp ac ts . A co mp ac t co nt ro ls ov er a st at e’ s ap pl ic at io n of it s o w n la w th ro ug h th e S u p r e m a c y Cl au se an d th e Co nt ra ct s Cl au se of th e Co ns ti tu ti on . A s ob - se rv ed in We st Vi rg in ia ex re l. D y e r v. Si ms : It ha s fr eq ue nt ly be en he ld th at w h e n a qu es ti on is su it ab ly ra is ed wh et he r t h e la w of a St at e ha s im pa ir ed th e ob li ga ti on of a co nt ra ct , in vi ol at io n of th e co ns ti tu ti on al pr ov is io n, th is Co ur t m u s t de te r- mi ne f o r it se lf w h e t h e r a co nt ra ct ex is ts , w h a t ar e it s ob li ga ti on s, a n d w h e t h e r th ey h a v e be en im pa ir ed b y th e le gi sl at io n of th e St at e. W h i l e th is Co ur t al wa ys e x a m i n e s wi th ap pr op ri at e re sp ec t t h e de ci - 57 . S e e ge ne ra ll y In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r A d u l t O f f e n d e r S u p e r v i s i o n (2 00 2) , MORSECCS MENTEBEOE T h e G e n e r a l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s ° 2 3 si on s o f st at e co ur ts b e a r i n g u p o n s u c h qu es ti on s, s u c h de ci si on s d o no t de tr ac t f r o m th e re sp on si bi li ty of th is Co ur t in re ac hi ng it s o w n co nc lu si on s as to th e co nt ra ct , it s ob li ga ti on s a n d im pa ir me nt , fo r ot he rw is e th e co ns ti tu ti on al gu ar an ty co ul d no t pr op er ly be en fo rc ed .* 8 T h e co nt ra ct ua l na tu re of th e ag re em en t a n d it s fe de ra l st an di ng , w h e r e ap pl ic ab le , t r u m p s in di vi du al st at e st at ut or y s c h e m e s b e c a u s e , t h r o u g h th e co mp ac t, th e m e m b e r st at es ce de in di vi du al st at e au th or it y in fa vo r of a mu l- ti la te ra l re so lu ti on to a di sp ut e or in fa vo r of mu lt il at er al re gu la ti on of an in te rs ta te ma tt er . T h e m e m b e r st at es ca nn ot t a k e un il at er al st ep s, su ch as th e ad op ti on of co nf li ct in g le gi sl at io n or th e is su an ce of ex ec ut iv e or de rs or co ur t ru le s th at vi ol at e th e t e r m s o f a c o m p a c t . ” T h e s t a n d i n g o f c o m p a c t s , as co nt ra ct s an d in st ru me nt s of na ti on al la w ap pl ic ab le to th e m e m b e r st at es , ge ne ra ll y nu ll if ie s an y st at e ac ti on in co ns is te nt wi th th e te rm s an d co nd it io ns _ of th e ag re em en t. Th er ef or e, o n c e ad op te d, th e on ly m e a n s av ai la bl e to c h a n g e th e su b- st an ce of a c o m p a c t (a nd th e ob li ga ti on s it im po se s o n a m e m b e r s t a t e ) is th ro ug h wi th dr aw al an d re ne go ti at io n of it s te rm s, or th ro ug h an a m e n d m e n t ad op te d b y al l m e m b e r st at es in es se nt ia ll y th e s a m e fo rm . T h e co nt ra ct ua l na tu re of co mp ac ts co nt ro ls ov er un il at er al ac ti on b y a st at e, in cl ud in g su ch ac ti on s as a st at e le gi sl at ur e’ s ad op ti on of a co nt ra ct un de r th e co mp ac t cl au se , wh ic h co ul di ts el f “i mp ai r th e ob li ga ti on of co nt ra ct s. ” T h e “t ru mp in g” na - tu re of co mp ac ts w o u l d ex te nd no t o n l y to un il at er al ac ti on b y th e st at e le g- is la tu re s bu t al so to un il at er al ac ti on s b y ex ec ut iv e ag en ci es an d s t a t e co ur ts . A st at e co ur t co ul d no t u ni la te ra ll y ap pl y on e st at e’ s la w ov er an ot he r, ab se nt a sp ec if ic pr ov is io n in th e c o m p a c t pr ov id in g ch oi ce of la w, be ca us e th e Si gn at or ie s w o u l d no t ha ve co ns en te d t o th e br oa d ap pl ic at io n of a pa rt ic ul ar St at e’ s la w to di sp ut es .® Fo r ex am pl e, co ur t ru le s th at mi gh t co nf li ct wi th a 58 . W e s t Vi rg in ia ex re l. Dy er v. Si ms , 34 1 U. S. 22 , 29 (1 95 1) . Se e al so Ke n- tu ck y v. In di an a, 2 8 1 U. S. 16 3 (1 93 0) ; In di an a e x re l. A n d e r s o n v. B r a n d , 30 3 U. S. 95 (1 93 8) . 59 . Se e, No rt he as t Ba nc or p v. Bd . of Go ve rn or s of Fe d. Re se rv e Sy s. , 47 2 U. S. 15 9 (1 98 5) (r ec ip ro ca l st at ut es pa ss ed by tw o st at es do no t co ns ti tu te a c o m p a c t w h e n st at es re ta in au th or it y to un il at er al ly m o d i f y or re pe al th e St at ut es a n d th e ef fe ct of th e st af ut es is no t co nd it io ne d up on t h e ac ti on o f an ot he rs ta te ). ° 60 . He li mu th v. Wa sh . Me tr o. Ar ea Tr an si t Au th ., 4 1 4 F. Su pp . 40 8 (D . M d . 1 9 7 6 ) ( M a r y l a n d ’ s pu bl ic d o c u m e n t a c t d o e s no t ap pl y to W M A T A a s t h e c o m p a c t di d no t co nt ai n a ch oi ce of l a w pr ov is io n a n d th e si gn at or ie s di d no t ag re e to b e b o u n d b y M a r y l a n d la w) . 2 4 Ch ap te r I pr ov is io n in an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t w o u l d mo st l i k e l y b e vo id . Li ke wi se , an ex ec ut iv e or de r : o r de pa rt me nt al ru le s or po li ci es th at co nf li ct wi th th e te rm s a n d co nd it io ns of an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t w o u l d al so mo st l i k e l y b e vo id . Th er es tr ic ti ve na tu re of a c o m p a c t w o u l d no t on ly ex te nd to st at e ac - ti on s, bu t w o u l d al so e x t e n d to th e ac ti on s o f it s po li ti ca l su bd iv is io ns . A co un ty pr ob at io n de pa rt me nt c o u l d no ta c t ou ts id e th e pa ra me te rs of t h e te rm s a n d ru le s of th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n in di s- ch ar gi ng i t s su pe rv is or y re sp on si bi li ti es ov er pe rs on s tr an sf er re d in to t h e st at e or in se nd in g it s pr ob at io ne rs to an ot he r st at e. B y en te ri ng in to a co mp ac t, a st at e le gi sl at ur e bi nd s “‘ th e st at e, ” in cl ud in g al l of it s go ve rn me nt al br an ch es , de pa rt me nt s, an d po li ti ca l su bd iv is io ns . T h e r e is , h o w e v e r , o n e e x c e p t i o n to th e g e n e r a l pr in ci pl e th at , o n c e ad op te d, m e m b e r s t a t e s ca nn ot un il at er al ly i m p o s e in di vi du al st at e J a w on a c o m p a c t or a c o m p a c t - c r e a t e d c o m m i s s i o n . W h e n a c o m p a c t s p e c i f i c a l l y re - s e r v e s to th e m e m b e r s t a t e s th e au th or it y to i m p o s e in di vi du al st at e l a w in a n ar ea go ve rn ed b y a co mp ac t, th e im po si ti on of t h a t la w is no t nu ll if ie d si mp ly b e c a u s e th e c o m p a c t i s a n in st ru me nt o f na ti on al la w. T h u s , as n o t e d in Ca li - fo rn ia D e p a r t m e n t of Tr an sp or ta ti on v. So ut h La ke T a h o e th e ap pl ic at io n of st at e l a w to a bi -s ta te en ti ty is “p re cl ud ed un le ss th e C o m p a c t re se rv es * * * th e ri gh t to i m p o s e su ch re qu ir em en ts .” ®! T h e re se rv at io n of su ch ri gh ts in a c o m p a c t ca n be a pe rm is si bl e el em en t of th e m e m b e r st at es ’ ag re em en t. St at es ar e no t, ho we ve r, ju st pa rt ie s to an or di na ry , ru n- of -t he -m il l co n- tr ac t. T h e m e r e fa ct th at th e S u p r e m e Co ur t m a y ex er ci se it s ve ry li mi te d or ig in al ju ri sd ic ti on in c o m p a c t di sp ut es is o n e in di ca ti on of th e im po rt an ce th e Fr am er s at ta ch ed to th e st at us of st at es as so ve re ig n m e m b e r s jo in ed in a co ns ti tu en t un io n. Th is sp ec ia l st at us of st at es ca n pr es en t un iq ue “c on tr ac - tu al ”i ss ue s, pa rt ic ul ar ly wi th en fo rc in g th e te rm s of a co mp ac t. F o r ex am pl e, in So ut h D a k o t a y. N o r t h Ca ro li na , th e S u p r e m e Co ur t re co gn iz ed th e pr op ri - et y of m o n e y j u d g m e n t s ag ai ns t st at es as pa rt of an or ig in al ac ti on , bu t ac - k n o w l e d g e d th at ge tt in g a st at e le gi sl at ur e to ac tu al ly p a y an ot he r st at e ca n pr es en t a un iq ue p r o b l e m . ” H o w e v e r , th e S u p r e m e Co ur t al so no te d in Te xa s 61 . Ca li fo rn ia De p’ t of Tr an sp . v. S. L a k e Ta ho e, 46 6 F. Su pp . 52 7, 53 7 (E .D . Ca l. 19 78 ). 62 . S o u t h D a k o t a v. N o r t h Ca ro li na , 1 9 2 U. S. 2 8 6 (1 90 4) . S e e al so T e x a s v. N e w M e x i c o , 4 8 2 U. S. 12 4, 1 3 0 (1 98 7) ( “ T h e C o u r t ha s re co gn iz ed th e pr op ri et y of m o n e y ju dg me nt s ag ai ns t a St at e in an or ig in al ac ti on , an d sp ec if ic al ly in a ca se in vo lv in g a co mp ac t. In pr op er or ig in al ac ti on s, th e El ev en th A m e n d - me nt i s n o ba rr ie r, fo r b y it s te rm s, it ap pl ie s on ly to su it s b y ci ti ze ns ag ai ns t a St at e. ” (c it at io ns o m i t t e d ) ) . S e e a l s o M a r y l a n d v. L o u i s i a n a , 4 5 1 U . S . 7 2 5 ( 1 9 8 1 ) . A s to t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o n a c t i o n s to r e c o v e r d a m a g e s f r o m st at es , s e e np OeCREREASESSPE. tapPb! etn nhscrmemer pai Res PTRA At dh nasenergyritaLEI T h e G e n e r a l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 2 5 N e w Me xi co , “T ha t th er e ma yb e di ff ic ul ti es in en fo rc in g j u d g m e n t s ag ai ns t 5 un se ls ca ut io n, bu t do es no t un de rm in e ou r au th or it y to en te r ju dg - m e e se ai ns t de fe nd an t St at es in ca se s Ov er wh ic h th e Co ur t ha s un do ub te d m e ot n, au th or it y th at is at te st ed to b y th e fa ct th at al mo st in va ri ab ly th e ju ss di e ap ai ns t w h i c h ju dg me nt s w e r e re nd er ed , co nf or ma bl y to th ei r du ty s e t h e Co ns ti tu ti on , vo lu nt ar il y re sp ec te d an d ga ve ef fe ct to th e sa me . wa te , tw it hs ta nd in g th e sp ec ia l st at us of st at es an d th e ch al le ng es pr es en te d i t h ‘e nf or ci ng co mp ac ts , c o m p a c t s fu nd am en ta ll y co ns ti tu te en fo rc ea bl e bl ig at io ns b e t w e e n th e st at es ju st as if th e st at es w e r e ac ti ng as pr iv at e pa r- oO ti es to a le ga l co nt ra ct . 4. 3 T H E A D V A N T A G E S A N D D I S A D V A N T A G E S O F I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S Ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s ar e ad va nt ag eo us in m a n a g i n g mu lt is ta te is su es th at do no t ty pi ca ll y fa ll wi th in th e am bi t of fe de ra l au th or it y. A m e r i c a n e e e K a n s a s v. Co lo ra do , 5 3 3 U. S. 1, 7 (2 00 1) (“ Co lo ra do co nt en ds , ho we ve r, t h a t th e El ev en th A m e n d m e n t p r e c l u d e s a n y su ch re co ve ry ba se d o n lo ss es s u s ta in ed by in di vi du al wa te r us er s in Ka ns as . It is fi rm ly es ta bl is he d, an w r e ; pu te d in th is li ti ga ti on , th at th e te xt of th e El ev en th A m e n d m e n t w o u ba r 2 di re ct ac ti on ag ai ns t Co lo ra do by ci ti ze ns of Ka ns as . Mo re ov er , w e av e se ve ra l ti me s he ld th at a St at e m a y no t in vo ke o u r or ig in al ju ri sd ic ti on ‘ w i " it is m e r e l y ac ti ng as an ag en t or tr us te e fo r o n e or m o r e of i t s ci ti ze ns . ) ve e al so N e w Ha mp sh ir e v . Lo ui si an a, 10 8 U. S. 7 6 (1 88 3) (c ou rt wi ll no t as s m e ju ri sd ic ti on ov er an ac ti on to re co ve r pa ym en t on de fa ul te d bo nd s ; at aa be en fo rm al ly as si gn ed t o th e st at e bu t re ma in ed be ne fi ci al ly ow ne d by p r va te in di vi du al s; El ev en th A m e n d m e n t b a r s ju ri sd ic ti on wh er e th e st at es on ly a no mi na l ac to r in th e pr oc ee di ng ); No rt h Da ko ta v. Mi nn es ot a, a a U. S. 3 6 5 (1 92 3) , (s ta te co ul d ob ta in a n in ju nc ti on ag ai ns t th e i m p r o p e Pp er at io n of Mi nn es ot a’ s dr ai na ge di tc he s, b u t th e El ev en th A m e n d m e n t a n e da ma ge s ba se d oni nj ur ie s to in di vi du al fa rm er s wh er e th e d a m a g e s c a m w a s fi na nc ed b y co nt ri bu ti on s f r o m th e fa rm er s a n d th e st at e h a d c o m m i t < to di vi di ng an y re co ve ry am on gt h e fa rm er s in pr op or ti on to n e a m “ a th ei r lo ss ); O k l a h o m a e x re l. J o h n s o n v. C o o k , 3 0 4 U. S. 3 8 7 (1 93 8 )¢ 0 1 w e or ig in al ju ri sd ic ti on of th e S u p r e m e Co ur t, a st at e m u s t s h o w a di re st o n e es t of it s o w n an d no t me re ly se ek re co ve ry fo r th e be ne fi t of in di vi du al s w the real pa rt ie s in in te re st ). _ . 63 . Te xa s N e w Me xi co , 48 2 U. S. 12 4, 13 0- 31 (1 98 7) (b y ra ti fy in g th e Co ns ti - tu ti on , st at es g a v e S u p r e m e C o u r t c o m p l e t e ju di ci al p o w e r to n e n di sp ut es a m o n g th em , a n d th is p o w e r in cl ud es th e ca pa ci ty to p r o v i c e st at e a re me dy f o r th e b r e a c h of an ot he r) . 2 6 Ch ap te r ] fe de ra li sm re st s o n th e sh ar ed ex er ci se of go ve rn me nt a u t h o r i t y b y t w o so v- er ei gn bo di es , an d th us so lu ti on s to p r o b l e m s h a v e ge ne ra ll y be en co nc ei ve d in t e r m o f ex cl us iv e du al it y. T h o s e m a t t e r s o f na ti on al c o n c e r n , s u c h as in te r. St at e c o m m e r c e , fo re ig n af fa ir s, a n d na ti on al de fe ns e, re st w i t h i n th e ex cl u- si ve au th or it y of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt , wh il e th es ta te s ex er ci se a Si gn if ic an t po rt io n of t h e na ti on ’s ge ne ra l po li ce po we r a s en ti ti es w h o s e so ve re ig nt y is co te rm in ou s wi th th at of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt ’s . E v e n to da y s o m e ar gu e th at th e “C on st it ut io n re qu ir es a di st in ct io n b e t w e e n wh at i s tr ul y na ti on al a n d wh at i s tr ul y lo ca l. ”* * H o w e v e r , th e ex pe ri en ce o f re ce nt ye ar s sh ow s t h a t c o m p l e x re gi on al or na ti on al p r o b l e m s sh ow l i t t l e re sp ec t fo r th e du al li ne s of fe de ra li sm or th e ge og ra ph ic al bo un da ri es of in di vi du al st at es . Th is fa ct ha s e n c o u r a g e d th e re em er ge nc e of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts no t on ly as de vi ce s fo r ad ju st in g in te rs ta te re la ti on s bu t al so as in st ru me nt s fo r go ve rn in g la rg e r e g i o n a l or na ti on al i s s u e s . A s ea rl y as 19 21 , th e U. S. S u p r e m e Co ur t no te d in N e w Yo rk v. N e w Je rs ey : “ W e ca nn ot wi th ho ld th e su gg es ti on , in sp ir ed by th e co ns id er at io n of th is ca se , th at th e gr av e p r o b l e m of s e w a g e di sp os al pr es en te d b y th e la rg e a n d g r o w i n g po pu la ti on s li vi ng o n th e sh or es of N e w Y o r k B a y is o n e m o r e li ke ly to be wi se ly so lv ed b y co op er at iv e st ud y a n d b y co nf er en ce an d mu tu al c o n c e s s i o n o n th e pa rt o f re pr es en ta ti ve s o f th e St at es so vi ta ll y in te re st ed in it th an b y pr oc ee di ng s in an y co ur t ho we ve r co ns ti tu te d. ’T h e pr ac ti ca li ti es of go ve rn in g a l a r g e , mu lt if ac et ed , fe de ra ll y de si gn ed na ti on fr eq ue nt ly bl ur s di st in ct io ns b e t w e e n wh at i s di st in ct ly “n at io na l” in sc op e an d wh at i s di s- ti nc tl y “l oc al ” in sc op e. T h e e m e r g e n c e of br oa d pu bl ic po li cy is su es th at ig no re st at e bo un da ri es a n d th e pr in ci pl es of fe de ra li sm h a v e Pr es en te d n e w go ve rn in g ch al le ng es t o bo th st at e a n d fe de ra l au th or it ie s. Cu rr en tl y, s o m e 30 of th e la rg es t me tr op ol it an ar ea s in th e Un it ed St at es ex te nd ac ro ss st at e li ne s af fe ct in g al mo st 25 pe rc en to f th e po pu la ti on of th e Un it ed St at es an d cr ea t- in g re gi on al co nc er ns . Th is is pr ec is el y w h e r e in te rs ta te co mp ac ts pr ov id e an ef fe ct iv e so lu ti on th at re sp ec ts fu nd am en ta l pr in ci pl es of fe de ra li sm , re co gn iz in g th e s u p r e m a c y of th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t re ga rd in g na ti on al is su es wh il e al lo wi n g th e st at es t o ta ke ap pr op ri at e co ll ec ti ve ac ti on in a d d r e s s i n g su pr a- st at e p r o b l e m s . T h u s , c o m p a c t s en ab le th e st at es , in th ei r so ve re ig n ca pa ci ti es , to ac t jo in tl y an d co ll ec ti ve ly , ge ne ra ll y ou ts id e th e co nf in es of th e fe de ra l le gi sl at iv e or re gu la - 64 . U n i t e d St at es v. M o r r i s o n , 5 2 9 U. S. 59 8, 6 1 7 - 1 8 (2 00 0) (h ol di ng un co ns ti - tu ti on al th e ci vi l ri gh ts r e m e d y o f th e V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n Ac t, 4 2 U. S. C. 13 98 1) . 65 . N e w Y o r k v. N e w Je rs ey , 2 5 6 U. S. 29 6, 3 1 3 (1 92 1) , o r Th e Ge ne ra l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es Go ve rn in g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 27 :r y pr oc es s wh il e co nc om it an tl y re sp ec ti ng th e vi ew of Co ng re ss on th e ap - . 0 : , “o pr jo i io n. B e c a u s e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt a g e n c i e s ar e ge ne r- op ri at en es s of jo in t ac ti on g al l po li ti ca ll y r e m o v e d f r o m st at e in te re st s, fe de ra l ad mi ni st ra to rs te nd no t to y ap yp ha si ze re gi on al co nc em s, th us po rt ra yi ng s o m e in se ns it iv it y to wa rd im po r- |c t st at e in te re st s. T h e in te rs ta te c o m p a c t pr ov id es st at es wi th th e op po rt un it y “ o f f s e t th is fe de ra l in se ns it iv it y. Eq ua ll y im po rt an t, co mp ac ts ca n ef fe ct iv el y 0 r ee mp t fe de ra l in te rf er en ce in to ma tt er s th at ar e tr ad it io na ll y wi th in th e pu r- r w of th e st at es bu t th at ha ve re gi on al o r na ti on al im pl ic at io ns . 7 ” Un li ke fe de ra l ac ti on s th at i m p o s e un il at er al , ri gi d ma nd at es , ad mi ni s- tr at iv e co mp ac ts af fo rd st at es th e op po rt un it y to de ve lo p d y n a m i c , Se if r e e la to ry s y s t e m s o v e r w h i c h th e m e m b e r st at es c a n m a i n t a i n co nt ro l t h r o u g a co or di na te d le gi sl at iv e a n d ad mi ni st ra ti ve pr oc es s. T h e v e r y n a t u r e of a n in te rs ta te c o m p a c t ma ke s i t an id ea l to ol to m e e t th e ne ed of co op er at iv eS ta te ac ti on in d e v e l o p i n g a n d e n f o r c i n g st an da rd s u p o n th e m e m b e r s t a t e s . Co m- pa ct s al so en ab le th e st at es to de ve lo p ad ap ti ve st ru ct ur es th at ca n e v o l v e to me et n e w a n d in cr ea se d ch al le ng es th at na tu ra ll y ar is e ov er ti me .® In sh or t, ‘t hr ou gh th e c o m p a c t de vi ce , st at es ac ti ng jo in tl y ca n co nt ro l no t on ly th e so lu ti on to a p r o b l e m bu ta l s o sh ap e th e fu tu re ag en da as th e p r o b l e m ch an ge s. Ho we ve r, to ac hi ev e th e en ds of fl ex ib il it y an d re sp on si ve ne ss , st at es m u s t ad op t co mp ac ts th at pr ov id e su ff ic ie nt el as ti ci ty to al lo w ad ap ta ti on to ad - re de ve lo pm en ts . e e v e n th es e ge ne ra l be ne fi ts , in te rs ta te co mp ac ts al so of fe r ve ry sp ec if ic be ne fi ts . Fi rs t, co mp ac ts ca n be fa sh io ne d to pr ov id e fo r a hi gh le ve l of te sp on si ve ne ss t o lo ca l an d st at e ne ed s. St at es in a sp ec if ic re gi on or in vo lv ed wi th a sp ec if ic is su e ar e ge ne ra ll y m o r e fa mi li ar wi th th e ci rc um st an ce s su r- ro un di ng su ch pr ob le ms th an fe de ra l of fi ci al s, w h o ar e ge ne ra ll y m o r e ge o- gr ap hi ca ll y an d p ol it ic al ly re mo ve d. Th is in tu rn al lo ws fo r m o r e re sp on si ve re gu la ti on th an pe rh ap s th e fe de ra l re gu la to ry pr oc es s af fo rd s. St at e of fi ci al s ar e, th er ef or e, m o r e li ke ly se ns it iv e to th e ty pe of re gu la ti on n e e d e d to ad - dr es s th e p r o b l e m ef fi ci en tl y a n d ef fe ct iv el y. 66 . It is im po rt an t to no te th at c o m p a c t - c r e a t e d ag en ci es ar e no t pe r se e x e m p t f r o m fe de ra l an ds t a t e l a w s i m p l y as a fu nc ti on of b e i n g a u n i q u e cr ea tu re o f st at e ac ti on . T h u s , th e F a m i l y a n d M e d i c a l L e a v e Ac t, th e Fa ir L a b o r St an - da rd s Ac t, a n d ot he r ac ts m a y ap pl y eq ua ll y to c o m p a c t - c r e a t e d ag en ci es as to an ot he r ag en cy o f t h e st at es or th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t , su bj ec t o f co ur se to co ns id er at io n of El ev en th A m e n d m e n t im mu ni ty . Cf , Li zz i v. Al ex an de r, 25 5 F. 3d 12 8 (4 th Ci r. 20 01 ). 67 . T h e S u p r e m e Co ur t ha s re co gn iz ed t h e fl ex ib il it y of co mp ac ts to m e e t b o m i m m e d i a t e a n d fu tu re co nc er ns . Se e, e. g. ,- Co lo ra do v. K a n s a s , 3 2 0 U . S . 38 3, 39 2 (1 94 3) . 28 Ch ap te r I Se co nd , in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ca n b e st ru ct ur ed to re sp ec t th e ba la nc e of p o w e r am on g f e d e r a l , st at e, an d lo ca l in te re st s. W h i l e m a n y ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s pr ov id e po we rt o re gu la te cr os s- bo rd er pr ob le ms , th ey ca n be st ru c- tu re d to d o so in a m a n n e r th at pr es er ve s na ti on al in te re st s wh il e re ta in in g se ns it iv it y to m o r e pa ro ch ia l in te re st s. T o a la rg e ex te nt th e C o m p a c t Cl au se re qu ir em en t of co ng re ss io na l co ns en t to th os e c o m p a c t s im pa ct in g fe de ra l in te re st s en su re s th at fe de ra l co nc er ns a r e at th e fo re fr on t of c o m p a c t de si gn a n d co ns tr uc ti on , wh il e si mu lt an eo us ly en ab li ng st at es to ma in ta in fu nc ti on al a n d re gu la to ry co nt ro l ov er an is su e. A p p r o v a l by Co ng re ss pr ov id es s t a t e s wi th th e au th or it y to re gu la te in an ar ea th at w o u l d ot he rw is e b e un av ai la bl e to th em . I t sh ou ld b e no te d, ho we ve r, th at wh il e co mp ac ts m a y b e de si gn ed t o ad dr es s lo ca l ma tt er s, th ey re ma in ag re em en ts b e t w e e n so ve re ig n st at es an d ar e no t su bj ec t to co nt ro l by su b- st at e un it s of lo ca l go ve rn me nt . Th ir d, in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ca n b r o a d e n pa ro ch ia l fo cu s b y al lo wi ng s t a t e s to ac t co ll ec ti ve ly a n d jo in tl y in ad dr es si ng re gi on al an d na ti on al pr ob le ms . M a k i n g de ci si on s ba se d so le ly o n an in di vi du al st at e’ s b o u n d a r y ca n be pr ob - l e m a t i c b e c a u s e , as no te d, b o u n d a r i e s d o n o t ne ce ss ar il y re fl ec t th e na tu ra l or lo gi ca l di vi si on s of te n pr es en t in m a n y su pr a- st at e pr ob le ms . Ab se nt a bi nd - in g ag re em en t, st at e le gi sl at ur es an d st at e re gu la to rs ge ne ra ll y d o no t m a k e de ci si on s th at ar e li ke ly to re st ri ct th ei r o w n ci ti ze ns ’ ac ti vi ti es ba se d o n th e n e e d to pr ot ec t a ne ig hb or in g st at e’ s in te re st s. Co ns eq ue nt ly , an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t pr ov id es th e op po rt un it y to m a k e de ci si on s ac ro ss st at e bo un da ri es wi th ou t re so rt in g to fe de ra li za ti on as th e on ly m e a n s fo r re so lv in g ma tt er s th at h a v e br oa d cr os s- st at e im pl ic at io ns . W h i l e re sp ec ti ng th e bo un da ri es , in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ca n en la rg e th e m e m b e r st at es ’ sp he re of po we r. Fi na ll y, de pe nd in g on it s de si gn a n d co ns tr uc ti on , an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t c a n pr ov id e m e m b e r st at es wi th a pr ed ic ta bl e, st ab le , a n d en fo rc ea bl e m e c h a - n i s m fo r po li cy co nt ro l an d im pl em en ta ti on . Ge ne ra ll y th e co nt ra ct ua l na tu re of th e ag re em en t, pa rt ic ul ar ly in th e re gu la to ry co nt ex t, en su re s it s ef fe ct iv e- ne ss a n d en fo rc ea bi li ty on th e m e m b e r st at es . T h e fa ct th at in te rs ta te c o m - pa ct s c a n n o t b e un il at er al ly a m e n d e d p r o v i d e s m e m b e r s t a t e s w i t h a pr ed ic ta bl e a n d st ab le po li cy pl at fo rm fo r re so lv in g pr ob le ms . B y en te ri ng in to an in te r- St at e co mp ac t, ea ch pa rt y st at e ac qu ir es th e le ga l ri gh t to re qu ir e th e ot he r st at es to pe rf or m un de r th e te rm s an d co nd it io ns of th e co mp ac t. T h e pr in ci pl e di sa dv an ta ge of c o m p a c t s m a y be ch ar ac te ri ze d as th re e- fo ld : (1 ) th e lo ng ne go ti at io ns a n d ar du ou s co ur se th ey m u s t ru n be fo re be - c o m i n g ef fe ct iv e; (2 ) th e c e d i n g of tr ad it io na l st at e so ve re ig nt y to qu as i- in de pe nd en t bo di es as re qu ir ed b y se ve ra l ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s an d th e re lu ct an ce o f st at es to c e d e s u c h au th or it y; a n d (3 ) c o m p l i a n c e a n d en - fo rc ea bi li ty . In te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ar e en te re d in to fo rc e w h e n st at e le gi sl at ur es ad op t th e c o m p a c t in su bs ta nt iv el y th e s a m e f o r m if no t ou tr ig ht ve rb at im , of IES Henna: TheGeneralLa w a n d Pr in ci pl es Go ve rn in g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 2 9 to be ef fe ct iv e, th e c o m p a c t in st ru me nt ca nn ot su bs ta nt iv el y b ea r e T h ® ‘v id ua l st at e le gi sl at ur es so le ly to m e e t un iq ue st at e ne ed s. T e ve ry a of a n i ta te co mp ac t, wh ic hi s to pr ov id e fo r th e co ll ec ti ve al lo - P e e e r m i n e au th or it y b e t w e e n m e m b e r st at es , do es no t al lo w m u c h ca ti on OF Be v i d w a l i s m T h e re qu ir em en t of su bs ta nt iv e s a m e n e s s pr ev en ts O e t a e fr om pa ss in g di ss im il ar en ac tm en ts no tw it hs ta nd in g, pe rh ap s, m e m b e r s e if fe re nc es wi th re sp ec t t o pa rt ic ul ar ma tt er s wi th in th e c o m - P e s a e w n t t of M i d w e s t Ra di oa ct iv e W a s t e C o m p a c t , it p a c t a n n n b ve ta te to ad op t pr ov is io ns th at su bs ta nt iv el y c h a n g e ‘ i m o " a so ve rn in g au th or it y be tw ee na l l m e m b e r st at es . Ho we ve r, as m ao e y h h a s t e m p t e d to ge t le gi sl at io n th ro ug ha s t a t e l e e i s i a n u K n o w s , a n i it ic al in te re st s c a n n o - i n c s o t n c e c o m s a n d i n t a s i g P e s f i c u l t to ge t st at e le gi sl at ur es to e e c o m ac ts be ca us e of th e st ri ct re qu ir em en t of su bs ta nt iv e s a m e n e s s ae e o e e n a l m e m b e r st at es a n d th e te nd en cy of pa ro ch ia l po li ti ca l in te re st to on si de ra ti on fo r in te rs ta te co op er at io n. e s e c o n d l y , b y th ei r na tu re , m o s t in te rs ta te c o m p e a i e a t y 2 pa ct s— re qu ir e m e m b e r st at es t o c e d e s e e e e e e e g h b o u n d e r y ac t m a n y st at e le gi sl at ur es on ly re lu c o e e e a o n f st at e S O Y co mp ac ts ca n pr es en t di ff ic ul t so ve re ig nt y q u e s t OS e e ae a c t s cr ea te er ei gn ty b e c o m e s pa rt ic ul ar ly pr ob le ma ti c w E r e o e p o w e r S u c h ing ad mi ni st ra ti ve bo di es th at po ss es s su bs ta nt ia l g ; m n co mp ac ts ar e tr ul y a cr ea ti on of th e tw en ti et h ce nt ur y as an o u t a n o r in g m o d e r n ad mi ni st ra ti ve st at e. A n y c o m p a c t th at s e e k s 6 a O r a a y a u t h o r i t y — a s di st in gu is he d f r o m 4 c o m p a c t t h a t m e r e y o a 5 i o t i o n a l ne ce ss ar il y im pl ic at es a re al lo ca ti on of so ve re ig nt y a w a y a e v e la rg el y co nt ro lo f t h e st at e an d to an in te rm ed ia te ad mi ni st ra ti t® a e ! e e S e a y un re gu la te d by in di vi du al st at e ac ti on or co nc er ns . y en a e po rt io n of ad mi ni st ra ti ve co mp ac ts , st at e au th or it ie s ef fe ct iv el y ce n e e w w h i c h st at e co nt ro l ov er a ma tt er th at w a s tr ad it io na ll y st at e in ne ta te O e e m e n t ha s b e c o m e su pr a- st at e in sc op e. In pl ac e of in di vi du al si a a n . st at es ha ve ti lt ed to wa rd th e cr ea ti on of su pr a- st at e ad mi ni s Ta Me a s t a t e ag em en t st ru ct ur es . Th is ce di ng of tr ad it io na l st at e so ve re ig nt y : n d s o l e y ad mi ni st ra ti ve bo di es ef fe ct iv el y me an st ha t in di vi du al st at es los ' co nt ro l ov er t h e is su e th at sp ar ke d in te re st in th e co mp ac t. e m b e r st at es , th e Fi na ll y, al th ou gh co mp ac ts ar e co nt ra ct s b e t w e e n th e m O e e e at ie s, st at e th em se lv es ar e no t or di na ry pa rt ie s i n an y se ns e. “ S o v E a t w e st at es en jo y a le ve l of a u t o n o m y no t av ai la bl e to an y 0 ne r 8 ° S e c t . sa ve th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . Co ns eq ue nt ly , to a la rg e C o e ee ab er c e s ne ss of a c o m p a c t co nt in ue s to re st u p o n th e wi ll in gn es s 0: he m e m i t h s t a n d - to ac tu al ly ab id e by th e te rm s an d co nd it io ns of th e a g r e e m 3 0 Ch ap te r 1 in g it s co nt ra ct ua l na tu re . Th is is pa rt ic ul ar ly th e ca se wi th ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s . T h e s e c o m p a c t s fr eq ue nt ly cr ea te o n g o i n g ad mi ni st ra ti ve b o d i e s ch ar ge d wi th ov er se ei ng a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g th e ag re em en t. T h e s e bo di es ar e no t, ho we ve r, st at e bo di es in th e tr ad it io na l se ns e. Ne it he r d o th ey po ss es s ch ar ac te ri st ic s of fe de ra l ag en ci es . A s o n e co ur t ha s no te d, ev en ob ta in in g co ng re ss io na l co ns en t do es no t tr an sf or m a co mp ac t- cr ea te d ad mi ni st ra ti ve b o d y in to a “f ed er al ” ag en cy su ch th at th e A p p o i n t m e n t s Cl au se of th e C o n - st it ut io n ap pl ie s to it s m e m b e r s . ® A s a re su lt , th e e n f o r c e m e n t o f m a n y ad - mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s fa ll s to hy br id go ve rn me nt al ag en ci es th at , al th ou gh po ss es si ng si gn if ic an t po we rs , m u s t re ly o n th e c o m m i t m e n t o f th e st at es t o ab id e b y th ei r ag re em en t. Ul ti ma te ly , in th e ab se nc e of go od wi ll co mp li an ce th e e n f o r c e m e n t o f c o m p a c t s fa ll s to th e ju di ci al pr oc es s, w h i c h c a n b e ex - ce ed in gl y ex pe ns iv e an d ti me -c on su mi ng . A l t h o u g h c o m p a c t s m a y b e v i e w e d as d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s w h e n v i e w e d pu re ly f r o m a n in di vi du al st at e’ s pe rs pe ct iv e, th ei r ad va nt ag es in ma in ta in in g s o m e se mb la nc e o f “‘ st at e” co nt ro l ov er is su es fa r ou tw ei gh in di vi du al co nc er ns . I n th e ab se nc e of ad op ti ng an ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t ap pr oa ch to re so lv in g m a n y mu lt il at er al is su es , st at es ar e le ft wi th a ch ec ke r- bo ar d ap pr oa ch to m a n a g i n g th ei r re la ti on sh ip s. Th is la ck of co or di na ti on b e t w e e n th e st at es in vi te s fe de ra l pr ee mp ti on ov er wh at a r e tr ad it io na ll y st at e ma tt er s, en co ur - ag es th e ap pl ic at io n of fe de ra l re gu la to ry sc he me s t o su ch is su es , or le av es cr it ic al mu lt is ta te ma tt er s to th e m e r c y o f in di vi du al st at e re gu la to rs w i t h th e at te nd an t co nf us io n th at re su lt s w h e n 5 0 st at es in di vi du al ly at te mp t to re gu - la te a mu lt il at er al co nc er n. T h e la tt er c o n s e q u e n c e sh ou ld b e of pa rt ic ul ar co nc er n. G i v e n th e la rg e n u m b e r of ur ba n ar ea s th at n o w sp an st at e b o u n d - ar ie s a n d th e ex pl os io n of mu lt is ta te re gu la to ry is su es , in di vi du al st at e re gu - la ti on is at be st ha ph az ar d. In te rs ta te co mp ac ts , w h e n pr op er ly dr af te d, ca n p r o v i d e a u n i f o r m re gu la to ry s c h e m e s o n e c e s s a r y to da y. 1. 4 I M P A C T O F C O M P A C T S O N P R I V A T E I N T E R E S T S T h e co nt ra ct ua ln a t u r e of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts as me ch an is ms fo r al lo ca ti ng St at e go ve rn in g au th or it y co ul d le ad s o m e to m i n i m i z e th e im pa ct of su ch ag re em en ts o n pr iv at e in te re st s. Ye t c o m p a c t s ca n ha ve a di re ct a n d su bs ta nt ia l im pa ct o n pr iv at e pa rt ie s an d pr iv at e in te re st s. Fo r ex am pl e, a b o u n d a r y c o m - pa ct th at m o v e s an es ta bl is he d st at e li ne no t on ly im pa ct s an ar ra y of st at e au th or it ie s, ra ng in g fr om la w en fo rc em en t t o co ur ts to ta xi ng bo di es , bu t al so ca n af fe ct t h e in te re st s of in di vi du al ci ti ze ns . C h a n g e s in bo un da ri es ca n af fe ct 68 . Se at tl e M a s t e r Bu il de rs A s s ’ n v. Pa c. N . W . El ec . P o w e r & C o n s e r v a t i o n P l a n n i n g Co un ci l, 7 8 6 F. 2d 1 3 5 9 (9 th Ci r. 19 86 ). ath ory Sener s Th e G e n e r a l L a w a n d Pr in ci pl es G o v e r n i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 3 1 Ja nd ti tl es th at st re tc h ba ck ye ar s, ch an ge ci ti ze ns ’ ta x ob li ga ti on s b y su bj ec ti ng th em to ta xa ti on b y mu lt ip le st at es , c h a n g e th e te rm s an d co nd ii on s 0 pr op e wn er sh ip , an d ev en re su lt i n bo un da ri es th at ar e in co nv en ie nt o p n y or t by pl ac in g th e bo un da ry in th e mi dd le of bu il di ng . A co ur t ca nn ot m a e “i va te pa rt ie s ti tl e to la nd th at is la te r de te rm in ed b y in te rs ta te c o m - e a S u r e m e Co ur t de cr ee to be b e y o n d th e tr ue bo un da ri es of th e st at e. e e 4 ve nn in at io ns b y co mp ac t o r de cr ee af fe ct th e pr iv at e pr op er ty ri gh ts of S u d e e n of a st at e as we ll as th os e ma tt er st h a t pe rt ai n to a st at e’ s so ve re ig nt y a e t h e ja nd wi th in th e bo un da ri es of th e st at e. Ti tl e, Ju si sd ic ti on , a n dS O v e r - ei gn ty ar e de pe nd en tq ue st io ns . T h e fi xi ng of a bo un da ry b y in te rs t c o r p a c t do es no tr es ul t in th e di ve st in g of ci ti ze ns ’ ti tl es to la nd s th at we re e r y f o m gr an ts un de r th e st at e. Ra th er , h e c i t i z e n ti le sa r e in va li d as a ma tt er e in tr in si c de fe ct o f ti tl e in the s . b e e n a c t of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts o n pr iv at e in te re st s ha s g r o w n re ma ri s ab ly in m o r e re ce nt ti me s gi ve n th e in cr ea si ng us e of th es e in st ro me ot b y a re gu la to ry de vi ce . In ge ne ra l, th e ad op ti on of an in te rs ta te co Pa t b y 8 st at e, as we ll as re gu la to ry de ci si on s pr om ul ga te d un de r a co mp ac t, ct t e bi nd no t on ly th e st at e in it s of fi ci al ca pa ci ty bu t al so th e ci ti ze ns o im st at e. ) Co ns eq ue nt ly , wh il e co mp ac ts m a y on ce ha ve b e e n us ed st ri c y t ad ju st st at e re la ti on sh ip s wi th pr iv at e in st ru me nt s im pa ct ed as a b y p r uc t su ch as ad ju st me nt s, to da y m a n y ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s ha ve di re c n e m e a s u r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s o n pr iv at e pa rt ie s. T h i s h a s pa rt ic ul ar ly b e c o m e © ca se in vo lv in g th os e ad mi ni st ra ti ve co mp ac ts th at af fe ct pr op er ty in te re st an d, to a le ss er ex te nt , th os e co mp ac ts af fe ct in g th e li be rt y in te re st s of c a m e na l of fe nd er s a n d ju ve ni le s. In bo th co nt ex ts , th e co ur ts ha ve re co gn iz ed "e p o w e r of re gu la to ry c o m m i s s i o n s to m a n a g e no t on ly in te rs ta te re la ti on s, al so to af fe ct th e in te re st s of pr iv at e pa rt ie s no t as a by pr od uc t of a c o m p a c bu t as a di re ct a n d pu rp os ef ul co ns eq ue nc e of th e co mp ac t. ’ 69 . N e w Je rs ey v. N e w Yo rk , 52 3 U. S. 76 7, 81 1 (1 99 8) ( “ W e ap pr ec ia te ih e di ff ic ul ti es of a bo un da ry li ne th at di vi de s no tj us t an is la nd bu ts o m e of t ne bu il di ng s on it , bu t th es e dr aw ba ck sa r e th e pr ic e of N e w Je rs ey s su cc es s x li ti ga ti ng un de r a co mp ac t wh os e f a i r co ns tr uc ti on ca ll s fo r a li ne so Ge ti - ni te .” ). 70 . R h o d e Is la nd v. Ma ss ac hu se tt s, 3 7 U. S. 6 5 7 (1 83 8) ; P o o l e v. L e s s e e of Fl ee ge r, 36 U. S. 18 5 (1 83 7) . 71 . Hi nd er li de rv , L a Pl at a Ri ve r & Ch er ry Cr ee k Di tc h Co ., 30 4. U. S. ” o e ) (s ta te s an dt h e i r ci ti ze ns ar e bo un db y th e te rm s of co mp ac t) . Se e a i e a n ti er D i t c h Co . v. So ut he as te rn Co lo . W a t e r C o n s e r v a n c y Di st ., . 1 1 1 7 (C ol o. 19 98 ). 72 . B a d g l e y v. N e w Yo rk , 6 0 6 F. 2d 3 5 8 (2 d Ci r. 19 79 ). 3 2 C h a p t e r I T h e r e ar e m a n y ot he r e x a m p l e s of st at es e m p l o y i n g ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m - pa ct s, a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e i r at te nd an t c o m m i s s i o n o r ag en ci es , to cr ea te b r o a d re gu la to ry sc he me s t h a t af fe ct a br oa d ra ng e of pr iv at e in te re st s. Co ur ts ha ve re co gn iz ed th e au th or it y of th e Pa ci fi c N o r t h w e s t El ec tr ic P o w e r a n d C o n - se rv at io n Pl an ni ng Co un ci l to pr om ul ga te th e No rt hw es t Co ns er va ti on an d El ec tr ic P o w e r Pl an to m e e t th e re gi on al en vi ro nm en ta l a n d ec ol og ic al co n- ce rn s as m a n d a t e d b y th e Bo nn ev il le Pr oj ec t Ac t. ” Co ur ts ha ve re co gn iz ed th e ex te ns iv e au th or it y of th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t on th e P l a c e m e n t of Ch il - dr en to co nt ro l th e m o v e m e n t an d pl ac em en t o f ch il dr en su bj ec t to a va ri et y of le ga l ac ti on s in cl ud in g te mp or ar y pl ac em en t, ad op ti on , a n d gu ar di an sh ip s. C o m p a c t c o m m i s s i o n s h a v e be en us ed to re gu la te mi lk pr ic e su pp or ts ,” th e in te rs ta te m o v e m e n t o f ad ul t of fe nd er s, ” an d la rg e me tr op ol it an tr an si t sy s- te ms .’ ° N e w Y o r k an d N e w Je rs ey em pl oy ed a n in te rs ta te co mp ac t t o cr ea te a bi -s ta te re gu la to ry ag en cy , th e Wa te rf ro nt C o m m i s s i o n of N e w Y o r k Ha rb or , to li ce ns e an d re gu la te ce rt ai n e m p l o y m e n t ac ti vi ti es on th e N e w Y o r k wa te r- fr on t in pa rt to co nt ro l th e in fl ue nc e of or ga ni ze d cr im e. ” B e c a u s e c o m p a c t s ca n, to v a r y i n g de gr ee s, i m p a c t s u c h a b r o a d r a n g e of pr iv at e in te re st s, co ur ts h a v e ge ne ra ll y de fe rr ed to th e au th or it y of Co ng re ss , ag re em en ts , an d co mp ac t- cr ea te d co mm is si on s in co mp ac t- ba se d l it ig at io n. Fo r ex am pl e, in D e Ve au v. Br ai st ed , th e S u p r e m e Co ur t up he ld th e va li di ty of a co mp ac t cr ea ti ng th e N e w Y o r k Wa te rf ro nt C o m m i s s i o n ev en th ou gh la bo re rs af fe ct ed b y it s re gu la ti on s ar gu ed th at th e c o m p a c t w a s an in tr us io n o n fe de ra l la bo r au th or it y an d h a d be en pr ee mp te d b y se ve ra l fe de ra l ac ts . A s th e Su - p r e m e C o u r t no te d, on e of th e fu nd am en ta l ob je ct s of th e c o m p a c t w a s to “ k e e p cr im in al s a w a y f r o m th e wa te rf ro nt ” b y i m p o s i n g li ce ns in g a n d re gu la - to ry s c h e m e s o n wa te rf ro nt e m p l o y m e n t . ” In up ho ld in g th e va li di ty of th e c o m p a c t an d t h e au th or it y of th e c o m m i s s i o n to re gu la te e m p l o y m e n t , in cl ud - in g th e ef fe ct iv e ex cl us io n f r o m e m p l o y m e n t o f c e r t a i n fe lo ns , th e S u p r e m e 73 . Se at tl e M a s t e r Bu il de rs A s s ’ n v. Pa c. N . W . El ec . P o w e r & C o n s e r v a t i o n Pl an ni ng Co un ci l, 78 6 F. 2d 13 59 (9 th Ci r. 19 86 ). 74 , Or ga ni c C o w , L L C v. N. E. Da ir y C o m p a c t C o m m ' n , 16 4 F. Su pp . 2d 41 2 (2 00 1) , va ca te d Or ga ni c Co w, LL Cv . Ct r. fo r N e w En gl an d Da ir y C o m p a c t R e s e a r c h , 3 3 5 F. 3d 6 6 (2 d Ci r. 20 03 ). 75 . Se e, e. g. , In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n (2 00 2) . 76 , W a s h i n g t o n M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a Tr an si t R e g u l a t i o n C o m p a c t (1 98 1) . 7 7 , W a t e r f r o n t C o m m i s s i o n A c t , 1 9 5 3 N . Y . L a w s 8 8 2 , 8 8 3 ; 1 9 5 3 N. J. L a w s 2 0 2 , _2 03 . T h e c o m p a c t w a s a p p r o v e d b y C o n g r e s s in A u g u s t 19 53 . Se e 6 7 St at . 54 1, c. 40 7 (1 95 3) . 78 . D e Ve au v . Br ai st ed , 3 6 3 U. S. 14 4, 1 4 9 (1 96 0) . TheGenera l L a w an dP ri nc ip le s Go ve rn in g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 33 d th at co ng re ss io na l au th or iz at io n ha d ef fe ct iv el y re co nc il ed an y C o n b e t w e e n th e co mp ac t an d fe de ra l la bo r la w. T h e Co mm is si on wa s, th er ef or e, du ly em po we re d t o re gu la te e m p l o y m e n t al on g th e N e w Y o r k wa te r- fr on t, an d th at in cl ud ed ef fe ct iv el y ex cl ud in g ce rt ai n cl as se s of in di vi du al s ‘e mp lo ym en t b y th e ap pl ic at io n of i t s li ce ns in g an d re gu la to ry sc he me . F o nv e r a ex am pl es il lu st ra te th e ex te nt to w h i c h st at es ha ve u s e d in te rs ta te co mp ac ts as to ol s to re gu la te a n d m a n a g e pr iv at e in te re st s in an ef fo rt to ag e in te rs ta te is su es . O n e of th e m o s t pe rt in en tt s th e T a h o e Re gi on al Pl an ni ng C o m p a c t . Th is co mp ac t, ad op te d by Ca li fo rn ia an d N e v a d a in 19 68 an d su bs eq ue nt ly ap pr ov ed b y Co ng re ss ,” c r e a t e d th e T a h o e Re gi on al Fl an ” ni ng A g e n c y ( T R P A ) to m a n a g e wa te r, la nd us e, a n d d e v e l o p m e n t in the La ke Ta ho e re gi on . Re gu la to ry de ci si on s of th e T R P A h a v e be en t < so ur ce of si gn if ic an tl it ig at io n th ro ug ho ut t h e hi st or y of th e co mp ac t, ge ne ra yc o n e te ri ng on re gu la to ry co nt ro ! of de ve lo pm en t an d la nd us e. Fo r ex am pl e, in Ta ho e- Si er ra Pr es . Co un ci lv . T a h o e Re gi on al Pl an ni ng Ag en cy , th e S u p r e m e Co ur t re co gn iz ed th e au th or it y of th e T R P A to re gu la te la nd us e a n d to e in e th e te rm s an d co nd it io ns un de r wh ic hl a n d us e re gu la ti on co ns ti tu te s a “t ak - i n g ” fo r pu rp os es o f th e D u e Pr oc es s C l a u s e T h e C o u r t co nc lu de d th at t h e m e r e en ac tm en t of th e re gu la ti on s by a co mp ac t- cr ea te d ag en cy th at so ug ht to im pl em en t mo ra to ri a o n d e v e l o p m e n t di d no t co ns ti tu te a pe r se ta ki ng or pr op er ty . Ra th er , wh et he r a ta ki ng oc cu rr ed d e p e n d e d u p o n co ns id er at io n © th e l a n d o w n e r s ’ i n v e s t m e n t - b a c k e d ex pe ct at io ns , th e ac tu al i m p a c t o f th e re gu - la ti on o n th e l a n d o w n e r s , th e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e pu bl ic in te re st in vo lv ed , a n d th e re as on s fo r im po si ng th e te mp or ar y re st ri ct io n. In ef fe ct , t h e S u p r e m e Co ur t up he ld th e au th or it y of th e T R P A to i m p o s e t w o mo ra to ri a, to ta li ng mo nt hs , on de ve lo pm en t i n th e L a k e T a h o e Ba si n wh il e it fo rm ul at ed a c o m - p r e h e n s i v e l a n d - u s e p l a n fo r th e ar ea , a n d to d o so w i t h o u t th e n e e d to c o m - pe ns at e th e pr iv at e la nd ow ne rs a n d de ve lo pe rs af fe ct ed b y th e mo ra to ri a. Da ir y co mp ac ts ha ve be en an ot he r so ur ce of li ti ga ti on ov er th e ye ar s, gi ve n th e br oa d re gu la to ry au th or it y po ss es se d by th ei r co mm is si on s, P a r ti cu la rl y in th e co nt ex t of pr ic e su pp or ts . In Or ga ni c C o w , L L C v. No rt e e D a i r y C o m p a c t C o m m i s s i o n , a co ur t h e l d th at th e ru le s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n O No rt he as t In te rs ta te Da ir y Co mp ac t de mo ns tr at ed th at th e in te nt o f th e co m- pa ct wa st o es ta bl is h a ba si c st ru ct ur e b y wh ic h t h e N o r t h e a s t D a i r y C o m p a c t 79 . Ca c. Go v’ t C o p e An n. §§ 66 80 0- 66 80 1 (1 97 7) ; Ne v. Re v. St ar . §§ 27 7. 1a 2 7 7 . 2 3 0 (1 97 3) . C o n g r e s s a p p r o v e d th e c o m p a c t In 19 69 . S e e P u b . L. No . 91 -1 48 , 83 St at . 3 6 0 (1 96 9) . 80 . Ta ho e- Si er ra Pr es . C o u n c i l v. T a h o e Re g’ l P l a n n i n g A g e n c y , 5 3 5 U. S. 3 0 2 (2 00 2) . 3 4 Ch ap te r 1 C o m m i s s i o n m a y ac hi ev e th os e pu rp os es th ro ug h th e ap pl ic at io n, ad ap ta ti on , a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e r e g u l a t o r y t e c h n i q u e s hi st or ic al ly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i l k ma rk et in g an d to af fo rd th e c o m m i s s i o n br oa df le xi bi li ty to de vi se re gu - la to ry m e c h a n i s m s to ac hi ev e th e pu rp os es of th is co mp ac t. ®! A “h an dl er ” wi th in th e m e a n i n g of th e No rt he as t Da ir y In te rs ta te C o m p a c t i s su bj ec t to th e co mp ac t’ s ov er -o rd er p r i c e ob li ga ti on , re ga rd le ss of th e co nt ra ct p r i c e th e ha nd le r pa ys i t s pr od uc er s. T h e im pa ct th at in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s h a v e o n pr iv at e in te re st s ca n al so be mi or e su bt le th an th e ov er t e x a m p l e s of fi xi ng da ir y pr ic es , es ta bl is hi ng st at e bo un da ri es (a nd th e at te nd an t co ns eq ue nc es o f su ch ), se tt li ng la nd us e po li cy , or co nt ro ll in g th e m o v e m e n t o f ad ul t a n d ju ve ni le of fe nd er s. T h e te rm s an d co nd it io ns of a c o m p a c t ca n in di re ct ly es ta bl is h ri gh ts an d ob li ga ti on s, de fi ne th e ci rc um st an ce s un de r w h i c h in di vi du al s ca n pa rt ic ip at e in co mp ac t ac ti vi - ti es , an d re gu la te w h i c h la ws ap pl y in pa rt ic ul ar ci rc um st an ce s. In ea ch of th es e e x a m p l e s it is th e op er at io na l im pa ct of co mp ac ts , in ad di ti on to th ei r le ga l im pa ct , th at m u s t be co ns id er ed b y th e pr ac ti ti on er . Co ns eq ue nt ly , th e ri gh ts a n d ob li ga ti on s of pr iv at e ci ti ze ns ca n be de fi ne d b y ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s an d b y th e ac ti on s of co mp ac t- cr ea te d re gu la to ry bo di es , ac ti on s th at co ur ts h a v e ge ne ra ll y re co gn iz ed as a le gi ti ma te us e of c o m p a c t p o w e r a n d to w h i c h th ey ha ve ge ne ra ll y de fe rr ed . 8 1 . O r g a n i c C o w , L L C . v . N . E . D a i r y C o m p a c t C o m m ’ n , 4 6 F. S u p p . 2 d 2 9 8 ( D . “V t. 19 99 ), af f’ d, T h e O r g a n i c C o w , L L C v. N . E . D a i r y C o m p a c t C o m m ' n , 1 6 4 F. S u p p . 2 d 4 1 2 (D . V t . 20 01 ), v a c a t e d b y O r g a n i c C o w , LL C v . Ct r. fo r N e w E n g l a n d D a i r y C o m p a c t R e s e a r c h , 3 3 5 F. 3d 6 6 (2 d Ci r. 20 03 ). C h a p t e r 2 T H E F E D E R A L G O V E R N M E N T ’ S R O L E | IN I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S 2. 1 C O N G R E S S I O N A L C O N S E N T R E Q U I R E M E N T 3 6 2 4 . 1 H o w Co ns en t Is G i v e n 3 6 4. 1. 2 T h e B r e a d t h a n d Li mi ts of Co ng re ss io na l C o n s e n t 3 9 2. 1. 3 W i t h d r a w a l of C o n s e n t 4 2 2. 1. 4 S u b s e q u e n t Le gi sl at iv e A c t i o n b y C o n g r e s s 4 3 2. 1. 5 W h e n Is Co ng re ss io na l Co ns en t R e q u i r e d ? 4 7 2. 1. 6 T h e Ef fe ct of C o n g r e s s i o n a l C o n s e n t o n C o u r t Ju ri sd ic ti on 5 3 2. 1. 7 Co nt ra ct ua l N a t u r e of C o m p a c t s - 6 4 3. 2 F E D E R A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N I N C O M P A C T S 6 6 4. 3 E F F E C T O F C O N G R E S S I O N A L C O N S E N T O N C O M P A C T - C R E A T E D A G E N C I E S 6 8 T h e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt ’s ro le in th e in te rs ta te c o m p a c t pr oc es s ca n oc - cu r o n se ve ra l le ve ls . T h e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt ha s a t t i m e s en co ur ag ed s t a t e s to ad op t co mp ac ts as a me an s o f se tt li ng di sp ut es or cr ea ti ng re gu la to ry Te - gi me s to ad dr es s on go in g pr ob le ms , as ev id en ce d by t h e fe de ra l pr od di ng th at le d to th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n Ad op ti on an d M e d i c a l As si st an ce . Ad di - ti on al ly , th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t c a n b e a m e m b e r o f a n in te rs ta te c o m p a c t as is th e ca se wi th th e In te rs ta te A g r e e m e n t o n De ta in er s or th e Na ti on al C r i m e Pr ev en ti on an d Pr iv ac y C o m p a c t . Fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n c a n al so oc cu ri n le ss di re ct bu t eq ua ll y im po rt an t w a y s th ro ug h th e in te ra ct io n of fe de ra l re gu la - to ry a g e n c i e s w i t h in te rs ta te c o m p a c t ag en ci es , a n d th e ap pl ic at io n o f fe de ra l la ws t o ar ea s c o v e r e d b y in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s . T h i s m o s t cl ea rl y h a p p e n s in th e fi el d of en vi ro nm en ta l co mp ac ts gi ve n th e gr ea t ex te nt of ov er la pp in g ju ri s- di ct io n be tw ee n th e st at es a n d fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . Fi na ll y, an d pe rh ap s m o s t im po rt an tl y, th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t ha s si gn if ic an t in fl ue nc e ov er th e c o m - pa ct p r o c e s s t h r o u g h th e ex er ci se o f c o n g r e s s i o n a l co ns en t. Si ng ul ar ly ta ke n, th e ac t of co ns en t, th e de ni al of co ns en t, or th e mo di fi ca ti on o f co ns en t t h r o u g h s u b s e q u e n t c o n g r e s s i o n a l ac ts d e t e r m i n e s th e fa te o f vi rt ua ll y a n y in te rs ta te c o m p a c t f a l l i n g w i t h i n th e a m b i t o f th e C o m p a c t C l a u s e . 35 4 6 C h a p t e r 2 tr ib ut ed b y th e re se rv oi r, ca na ls , a n d ot he r w o r k s he re in , a u t h o r i z e d sh al l ob se rv e an d be su bj ec t to an d co nt ro ll ed b y sa id Co lo ra do Ri ve r co mp ac t i n th e co ns tr uc ti on , m a n a g e m e n t , an d o p e r a t i o n of s a i d re se r- vo ir , ca na ls , a n d ot he r w o r k s a n d th e st or ag e, di ve rs io n, de li ve ry , a n d us e of wa te r fo r th e ge ne ra ti on of po we r, ir ri ga ti on , an d ot he r pu r- po se s, a n y t h i n g in th is su bc ha pt er t o th e co nt ra ry no tw it hs ta nd in g, a n d al l pe rm it s, li ce ns es , an d co nt ra ct s sh al l so p r o v i d e . Li ke wi se , Co ng re ss pr ov id ed in th e c o m p a c t cr ea ti ng th e W a s h i n g t o n Me tr op ol it an A r e a Tr an si t Au th or it y th at “t he ap pl ic ab il it y of th e la ws of t h e Un it ed St at es , a n d th e ru le s, re gu la ti on s, a n d or de rs pr om ul ga te d th er eu nd er , re la ti ng to or af fe ct in g tr an sp or ta ti on u n d e r th e C o m p a c t . . . is su sp en de d, e x c e p t as o t h e r w i s e sp ec if ie d in th e C o m p a c t , to th e ex te nt th at s u c h la ws , ru le s, re gu la ti on s, a n d or de rs ar e in co ns is te nt wi th or in du pl ic at io n of th e pr ov is io ns of th e Co mp ac t[ .] ’’ *° B y co nt ra st , st at es ca nn ot cr ea te in te rs ta te go ve rn in g ag en ci es or en te r in to in te rs ta te go ve rn me nt al ag re em en ts as an a v e n u e fo r av oi di ng fe de ra l re gu la ti on of ma tt er s th at cl ea rl y re st wi th in Co ng re ss ’s am bi t of au th or it y. In In te rm ou nt ai n Mu ni ci pa l G a s A g e n c y v. FE .R .C ., th e co ur t of ap pe al s af - fi rm ed a de te rm in at io n by th e Fe de ra l E n e r g y Re gu la to ry C o m m i s s i o n ( F E R C ) th at U t a h a n d A r i z o n a co ul d no t b y in te rs ta te a g r e e m e n t cr ea te a m u t u a l go ve rn in g en ti ty to es ca pe th e re gu la to ry au th or it y gi ve n to th e F E R C b y th e Na tu ra l G a s Ac t. *! A l t h o u g h Co ng re ss ex pl ic it ly e x e m p t e d mu ni ci pa li ti es f r o m th e co ve ra ge un de r th e Na tu ra l G a s A c t th ro ug h th e “ H i n s h a w A m e n d m e n t , ” st at es co ul d no t au th or iz e mu ni ci pa li ti es to f o r m an in te rs ta te go ve rn in g en - ti ty a n d th en cl ai m e x e m p t i o n f r o m co ve ra ge as it s e e m e d ax io ma ti c th at a st at e g o v e r n m e n t ca n on ly cr ea te a go ve rn me nt al en ti ty in it s o w n st at e an d no t an in te rs ta te re gu la to ry ag en cy .* Th er ef or e, wh il e Co ng re ss m a y us ei t s co ns en t po we r t o si gn if ic an tl y c h a n g e th e la nd sc ap e in w h i c h jo in t st at e ac - ti on ta ke s pl ac e, st at es m a y no t co nv er se ly us e th e in te rs ta te co mp ac t o r si mi - la r pr oc es s as a me an s f o r av oi di ng or ci rc um ve nt in g co ng re ss io na l au th or it y in th e ab se nc e of th e ex pl ic it ag re em en t b y Co ng re ss t h a t su ch ac ti on is pe r- mi ss ib le . 3 9 . 4 3 U . S . C . § 6 1 7 g ( a ) ( 2 0 0 4 ) . 40 . D . C . C o p e A n n . § 9 - 1 1 0 3 . 0 4 (2 00 4) . 41 . In te rm ou nt ai n M u n . G a s Ag en cy v . F E . R . C . , 3 2 6 F. 3d 1 2 8 1 (D .C . C i r . 20 03 ). 42 . 15 U. S. C. § 7 1 7 (c ) (2 00 4) . 43 . I n t e r m o u n t a i n M u n . G a s A g e n c y , Q u e s t a r G a s Co ., 9 8 F. E. R. C. P 6 1 , 2 1 6 (F .E .R .C , 20 02 ). TheFederalG ov er nm en t' s Ro le in In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 47 Al th ou gh Co ng re ss en jo ys br oa d or ev en pl en ar y au th or it y o v e r in te r- ta te co mp ac ts , th at au th or it y is no t un li mi te d. M o s t no ta bl e is th el im it at io n , tC on gr es s m a y no tu se i t s co ns ti tu ti on al po we rt o co er ce st at es in to ac ti ng oe n e r e ag en ts of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt o n ma tt er s th at ri gh tf ul ly b e l o n g to th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . T o al lo w su ch us ur pa ti on b y Co ng re ss di sr es pe ct th e st at us of st at es as so ve re ig n pa rt ne rs in th e fe de ra l st ru ct ur e. T h u s in t e w Yo rk v. Un it ed St at es , th e S u p r e m e Co ur t he ld va ri ou s as pe ct s of e o w Le ve l R a d i o a c t i v e W a s t e P o l i c y A m e n d m e n t s A c t o f 1 9 8 5 , w h i c h a u ° ri ze d lo w- le ve l ra di oa ct iv e wa st e di sp os al co mp ac ts , vi ol at ed t h e m e A m e n d m e n t . T h e S u p r e m e Co ur t de cl ar ed th e A c t un co ns ti tu ti on al 0 . in g, in pa rt , th at (1 ) m o n e t a r y in ce nt iv es co ns ti tu te d pe rm is si bl e ex er ci se s or co ng re ss io na l p o w e r un de rt h e C o m m e r c e , Ta xi ng , an d Sp en di ng _ e or th e Co ns ti tu ti on , (2 ) a c c e s s in ce nt iv es r e p r e s e n t e d p e r m i s s i b l e c o n o n a ex er ci se of Co ng re ss ’s c o m m e r c e po we r, bu t th at (3 ) t h e ta ke ti tl e cl au se ex ce ed ed th e Te nt h A m e n d m e n t b e c a u s e th e ta ke ti tl e in ce nt iv es of th e A c t we re no t an ex er ci se of co ng re ss io na l p o w e r e n u m e r a t e d in th e Co ns ti tu - ti on .* ® Al th ou gh th e Co ur t di d no t re ac h th e co ns ti tu ti on al it y of th e co mp ac ts au th or iz ed b y Co ng re ss , it di d m a k e cl ea r th at ac ts of Co ng re ss mu st b e in fu rt he ra nc e of th e p o w e r s it po ss es se s. Co ns eq ue nt ly , co ng re ss io na l po we r, in cl ud in g it s co ns en t po we r, i s co ns tr ai ne d b y co ns ti tu ti on al pr in ci pl es . C o n gr es s co ul d no t m a n d a t e th at st at es en te r in to a c o m p a c t o n a pa rt ic ul ar m a - te r. Co ng re ss co ul d, ho we ve r, en co ur ag e st at es to en te r in to c o m p a c t s by pr ov id in g co ns ti tu ti on al ly ap pr op ri at e in ce nt iv es an d sa nc ti on s. L e x In s u m m a r y , th e co ns en t p o w e r s of Co ng re ss ar e ro bu st a n d br oa d, ex te nd in g b e y o n d th e m e r e gr an ti ng of co ns en t to en co mp as s su bs ta nt iv e ch an ge s in fe de ra l an d ev en st at e la w. Gr an ti ng co ns en tt o th e m e m b e r st at es co nd i- ti on ed on t h e m ta ki ng sp ec if ic ac ti on s ca n re su lt in su bs ta nt ia l ch an ge s to bo th st at e la w an d th e c o m p a c t re gu la to ry pr oc es s. Th us , fo r th e pr ac ti ti on er in vo lv ed in ma tt er s re la te d to th e re gu la to ry au th or it y of a co mp ac t, it is im po rt an t to gr as p th e ex te nt to w h i c h Co ng re ss , th ro ug h th e ac t of co ns en t, ha s c h a n g e d th e le ga l la nd sc ap e. 2. 1. 5 W h e n Is Co ng re ss io na l C o n s e n t R e q u i r e d ? A n un va rn is he d re ad in g of th e C o m p a c t Cl au se w o u l d le ad o n e to c o n . cl ud e th at a n y ag re em en t b e t w e e n t w o or mo re s t a t e s re qu ir es co ng re ss io na co ns en t. U n d e r th e C o m p a c t Cl au se , a l l in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s a n d a g r e e m e n t s 44 , 42 U. S. C. S. § 20 21 b, et se g. (2 00 2) . 45 . N e w Y o r k v. U n i t e d St at es , 5 0 5 U. S. 1 4 4 (1 99 2) . 46 . Id . 4 8 C h a p t e r 2 w o u l d s e e m to re qu ir e co ng re ss io na l co ns en t be fo re ta ki ng ef fe ct , a ma tt er th at co ul d be o f si gn if ic an t co ns eq ue nc e gi ve n th e pl en ar y na tu re of Co ng re ss 's co ns en t au th or it y. H o w e v e r , co mp ac ts ca n ge ne ra ll y be di vi de d in to t w o si mp le ca mp s: t h o s e th at re qu ir e co ng re ss io na l co ns en t be ca us e th ey af fe ct fe de ra l in te re st s a n d th os e th at d o no t be ca us e fe de ra l in te re st s ar e no t af fe ct ed b y th e te rm s of th e co mp ac t. T h e S u p r e m e Co ur t ha s lo ng he ld th at no ta l l in te rs ta te ag re em en ts co n- st it ut e fo rm al c o m p a c t s re qu ir in g Ar ti cl e 1, Se ct io n 10 co ns en t. ”’ In Vi rg in ia v, Te nn es se e, th e Co ur t co nc lu de d th at th e C o m p a c t Cl au se re qu ir es co ng re s- si on al co ns en t on ly wi th re sp ec t to th os e jo in t st at e ag re em en ts th at in tr ud e u p o n th e po we r o f th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt o r a l t e r th e po li ti ca l ba la nc e be - t w e e n th e st at es a n d th e na ti on al go ve rn me nt .* * T h e gr an ti ng of co ns en t is an ac t of po li ti ca l j u d g m e n t b y Co ng re ss an di s in te nd ed to en su re th at th e po li ti - ca l ba la nc e b e t w e e n th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt a n d t h e s t a t e s is ma in ta in ed . T o th e ex te nt th at a c o m p a c t do es no t sh if t th e ba la nc e or in tr ud e o n fe de ra l in te re st s, co ng re ss io na l co ns en t is pr ob ab ly un ne ce ss ar y. A s a re su lt of th is ra th er a m o r p h o u s di st in ct io n b e t w e e n th e co nd it io ns u n d e r w h i c h th e co ns en t re qu ir em en t do es or do es no t ap pl y, it ca n b e di ff i- cu lt to k n o w wh en t o se ek co ng re ss io na l co ns en t. Ge ne ra ll y, th e Co ns ti tu ti on re qu ir es co ng re ss io na l co ns en t on ly w h e n th e co mp ac t th re at en s to en cr oa ch u p o n th e su pr em ac y o f th e Un it ed St at es . B u t w h e n do es a co mp ac t i n t r u d e o n th e s u p r e m a c y of th e Un it ed St at es ? S o m e h a v e ob se rv ed th at a th re at to th e s u p r e m a c y of th e Un it ed St at es ne ce ss ar il y en ta il s a th re at to o n e of C o n g r e s s ’ s e n u m e r a t e d le gi sl at iv e p o w e r s si nc e t h o s e p o w e r s ar e th e s o u r c e of s u p r e m e fe de ra l au th or it y. Th us , as pr ev io us ly no te d, w h e n it ap pr ov es a c om p a ct , C o n g r e s s ex er ci se s th e le gi sl at iv e po we rt h a t th e c o m p a c t th re at en s to e n c r o a c h u p o n a n d de cl ar es th at th e c o m p a c t is co ns is te nt wi th Co ng re ss ’s s u p r e m e p o w e r in th at ar ea . Th is pr in ci pl e st il l le av es a va st op po rt un it y fo r co nf us io n as to th e re qu ir em en t or n e e d fo r co ns en t. It is , pe rh ap s, ea si er to th in k of th e co ng re ss io na l co ns en t re qu ir em en ta s ap pl yi ng in o n e of t w o pr in ci pa l ci rc um st an ce s. Fi rs t, co ng re ss io na l co ns en t 47 . S e e U . S . St ee l C o r p . v. Mu lt is ta te T a x C o m m ’ n , 4 3 4 U. S. 4 5 2 (1 97 8) . 48 . T h e S u p r e m e Co ur t in Vi rg in ia v. Te nn es se e no t on ly af fi rm ed th e no ti on th at o n l y th os e c o m p a c t s af fe ct in g th e “p ol it ic al b a l a n c e ” o f th e fe de ra l s y s t e m n e e d co ns en t, bu t al so st at ed th at c o n s e n t c a n b e i m p l i e d af te r th e fa ct . .T hu s, th e Co ur t co nc lu de d th at Co ng re ss co ns en te d to th e Vi rg in ia - T e n n e s s e e b o u n d a r y c o m p a c t b y se tt in g u p ju di ci al di st ri ct s a n d ta ki ng a n u m b e r of ot he r ac ti on s a c k n o w l e d g i n g th e b o u n d a r y d e t e r m i n e d b y th e c o m p a c t . S e e ge ne ra ll y Vi rg in ia v. T e n n e s s e e , 1 4 8 U. S. 5 0 3 (1 89 3) . TheFederalGo v e r n m e n t ' s R o l e in In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 4 9 is ab so lu te ly re qu ir ed w h e n th e su bs ta nc e of th e c o m p a c t w o u l d al te r th e ba la nc e of p o w e r be tw ee nt h e st at es an d fe de ra l go ve rn me nt , po te nt ia ll y le ad - in g to im pe rm is si bl e st at e al li an ce s th at wo ul d di mi ni sh th e po we r of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt o r al te r th e ba la nc e of p o w e r a m o n g th es t a t e s th em - se lv es . Fo r ex am pl e, co ng re ss io na l co ns en ti s re qu ir ed fo r b o u n d a r y c o m - pa ct s be ca us e tw os ta te s ca nn ot un il at er al ly al te r th ei r po li ti ca l b o u n d a r i e s — a n d th e au th or it y ea ch st at e ex er ci se s wi th in th os e b o u n d a r i e s — w i t h o u t im pa ct - in g fe de ra li nt er es ts , th e st ab il it y o f st at e b o u n d a r i e s , a n d th e ex te nt o f st at e so ve re ig nt y an d au th or it y. B o u n d a r y co mp ac ts , le ft un re gu la te d b y Co ng re ss , co ul d le ad to im pr es si bl e po li ti ca l al le gi an ce b e t w e e n so me s t a t e s to th e po - te nt ia l de tr im en t of ot he r st at es or th e au th or it y of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . St at es co ul d co ns ta nt ly re ne go ti at e th ei r bo un da ri es , di ss ol ve th ei r b o u n d - ar ie s in to ta l, or cr ea te po li ti ca ll y po we rf ul al li an ce s. Th er ef or e, co ng re s- si on al co ns en t is re qu ir ed w h e n th e st at es , ac ti ng co ll ec ti ve ly , ta ke ac ti on s th at th ey co ul d no t ot he rw is e ta ke a n d th at m a y be de tr im en ta lt o ot he rs ta te s or th e s u p r e m a c y of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt .” Se co nd , co ng re ss io na l co ns en t m a y be re qu ir ed wh en t h e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e in te rs ta te c o m p a c t ap pe ar s to in tr ud e u p o n an ar ea ov er w h i c h C o n - gr es s ha s sp ec if ic le gi sl at iv e au th or it y. W h i l e ar gu ab ly a c o m p a c t in tr ud in g on Co ng re ss ’s au th or it y m a y be d e e m e d ani n t r u s i o n o n th e s u p r e m a c y of th e Un it ed St at es , in ac tu al it y th er e ar e a va st ar ra y of co mp ac ts th at w o u l d no t co nt ri bu te to im pe rm is si bl e po li ti ca l al le gi an ce th at th re at en th e ex is te nc e of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . S u c h co mp ac ts ar e ge ne ra ll y re gu la to ry in na tu re ; ra th er th an cr ea te im pe rm is si bl e st at e al le gi an ce s, th es e c o m p a c t s m a y m o r e co rr ec tl y be ch ar ac te ri ze d as pr ee mp ti ng Co ng re ss ’s le gi sl at iv e au th or it y an d th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt ’s re gu la to ry po we r. F o r ex am pl e, in te rs ta te da ir y c o m - pa ct s th at se ek to cr ea te pr ic e su pp or ts an d ma rk et in g pr og ra ms f o r re gi on al mi lk pr od uc ti on in tr ud e u p o n Co ng re ss ’s po we rt o re gu la te in te rs ta te c o m - me rc e. Li ke wi se , th e Su pr em e Co ur t de te rm in ed in Cu yl er v. Ad am s, a se mi - na l in te rs ta te c o m p a c t ca se , th at co ng re ss io na l co ns en t to th e In te rs ta te A g r e e m e n t o n De ta in er s w a s wa rr an te d, no ti ng th at “[ c] on gr es si on al p o w e r to le gi sl at e in th is ar ea is d e r i v e d f r o m b o t h th e C o m m e r c e C l a u s e a n d th e Ex tr ad it io n Cl au se . T h e la tt er Cl au se , Ar ti cl e [V , Se ct io n 2, cl au se 2, ha s pr ov id ed Co ng re ss wi th po we r t o le gi sl at e in th e ex tr ad it io n ar ea si nc e 17 93 wh en i t pa ss ed t h e fi rs t Fe de ra l Ex tr ad it io n Ac t. ” T h e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n ( I C A O S ) re qu ir es co ng re ss io na l co ns en t no t so m u c h be ca us ei t ch an ge d t h e po li ti ca l ba la nc e be tw ee n th es t a t e s an d fe de ra l 49 , A b r a m s v . T r a n s W o r l d Ai rl in es , In c. , 7 2 8 F. S u p p . 1 6 2 (S .D . N . Y . 19 89 ). 50 . C u y l e r v. A d a m s , 4 4 9 U. S. 43 3, 4 4 2 n. 10 (1 98 1) . me 5 0 C h a p t e r 2 g o v e r n m e n t bu t be ca us e th e co mp ac t s e e k s to re gu la te an ac ti vi ty th at co ul d b e su bj ec t to co ng re ss io na l re gu la ti on , su ch as ex tr ad it io n of pr ob at io ne rs a n d pa ro le es . In e a c h o f th es e e x a m p l e s , c o n g r e s s i o n a l co ns en t i s n o t re qu ir ed be ca us e th e c o m p a c t m i g h t le ad to im pe rm is si bl e st at e al le gi an ce st h a t th re at en th e s u p r e m a c y of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt , bu t be ca us e th e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e c o m p a c t in tr ud es o n an ar ea ar gu ab ly de le ga te d to Co ng re ss b y th e C o n - st it ut io n. In th is co nt ex t, C o n g r e s s is no t so m u c h w e i g h i n g th e po li ti ca l re la ti on sh ip b e t w e e n th e st at es an d th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t wi th re sp ec t to th ei r so ve re ig n au th or it y, bu t th e co ll ec ti ve au th or it y of th e st at es to en te r a co mp ac t t h a t in tr ud es u p o n Co ng re ss ’s ow nl eg is la ti ve po we r. T h e di st in ct io n b e t w e e n c o m p a c t s th at cr ea te i m p e r m i s s i b l e st at e al li - a n c e s a n d c o m p a c t s th at in tr ud e o n c o n g r e s s i o n a l au th or it y is im po rt an t f o r a si ng ul ar re as on : th os e co mp ac ts th at m a y cr ea te im pe rm is si bl e al li an ce s, su ch as b o u n d a r y co mp ac ts , ar e ge ne ra ll y no t su bj ec t to al te ra ti on b y su bs eq ue nt co ng re ss io na l le gi sl at iv e ac ti on . Fo r ex am pl e, on ce Co ng re ss co ns en ts to a b o u n d a r y co mp ac t, it ca nn ot th ro ug h su bs eq ue nt le gi sl at io n al te r th e la nd - sc ap e in w h i c h su ch c o m p a c t s op er at e wi th ou t th e jo in t ag re em en t of th e St at es an d Co ng re ss . Co ng re ss ca nn ot , of it s o w n ac co rd , ch an ge s t a t e bo un d- ar ie s as th ou gh st at es w e r e m e r e po li ti ca l su bd iv is io ns of th e fe de ra l go ve rn - me nt . B y co nt ra st , th os e c o m p a c t s th at in tr ud e o n Co ng re ss ’s le gi sl at iv e a u t h o r i t y — g e n e r a l l y re gu la to ry or ad mi ni st ra ti ve in n a t u r e — m a y b e su bj ec t to si gn if ic an t al te ra ti on by su bs eq ue nt co ng re ss io na l ac ti on . Co ng re ss ca n, fo r ex am pl e, c h a n g e wa te r di st ri bu ti on s c h e m e s un de r it s au th or it y ov er in - te rs ta te w a t e r w a y s no tw it hs ta nd in g th e ex is te nc e of a c o m p a c t to w h i c h it ha s pr ev io us ly co ns en te d. *! If it is de te rm in ed th at a c o m p a c t in va de s th e le gi sl at iv e pr er og at iv es of Co ng re ss , co ng re ss io na l co ns en t sh ou ld b e so ug ht . T w o w o r d s of ca ut io n ar e ne ed ed , ho we ve r. Fi rs t, on e sh ou ld no t as su me t h a t th e gr an ti ng of co ng re s- si on al co ns en t— ei th er ex pl ic it or i m p l i e d — i n th e co nt ex t of ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s is Co ng re ss ’s fi na l w o r d o n th e ma tt er . A c o m p a c t do es no t de pr iv e Co ng re ss o f i t s le gi sl at iv e au th or it y ov er ma tt er s de le ga te d to it b y th e C o n - st it ut io n. A s pr ev io us ly no te d, th ro ug h su bs eq ue nt le gi sl at iv e ac ti on C o n - gr es s ca n si gn if ic an tl y al te r th e la nd sc ap e in w h i c h c o m p a c t s op er at e, no tw it hs ta nd in g co ns en t. Se co nd , st at e ag re em en ts , wh et he r te rm ed c o m - pa ct s or no t, w h o s e su bj ec t ma tt er is ap pr op ri at e fo r fe de ra l le gi sl at io n bu t th at d o no t th re at en to in cr ea se th e po li ti ca l po we r o f th e st at es at th e ex pe ns e Si . F o r a n an al ys is of C o n g r e s s ’ s au th or it y to re gu la te lo w- le ve l ra di oa ct iv e w a s t e t h r o u g h in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s , se e ge ne ra ll y N e w Y o r k v. U n i t e d St at es , 50 5 U. S. 14 4 (1 99 2) . TheFederalGo v e r n m e n t ' s R o l e in In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 5 1 he fe de ra l go ve rn me nt , ar e no t in va li d fo r la ck of co ns en t, M a n y mu lt il at - o f te is su es ca n be th e su bj ec t of fe de ra l le gi sl at io n or re gu la ti on si mp ly c r a s a l t o f b e i n g la rg er t h a n a si ng le st at e’ s au th or it y. H o w e v e r , th es e 25 th er s d o no t ne ce ss ar il y tr ea d o n th e ex pl ic it au th or it y of Co ng re ss or en - o e th e ba la nc e of p o w e r be tw ee nt h e st at es an d fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . N e v - oe rc le ss , in th is la tt er co nt ex t, co ns en t sh ou ld be so ug ht t o en su re th at Co ng re ss fu ll y aw ar e of t h e st at es ’ ag re em en t an d, th er ef or e, at le as t ta ci tl y re sp ec t- ac t’ s ar ra ng em en ts . _ fu l o y on tr as t, co ng re ss io na l co ns en t i s cl ea rl y no t re qu ir ed , no r, ‘ gi ve n, do es it pr es um pt iv el y “f ed er al iz e” a c o m p a c t if th e su bj ec t m a n e r oe s no t al te r th e po li ti ca l ba la nc e or in va de co ng re ss io na l in te re st s. In Ne w fa mp - sh ir e v. M a i n e , fo r e x a m p l e , th e S u p r e m e C o u r t h e l d th at co ng re ss io na l c o n . se nt w a s no t n e e d e d to le gi ti mi ze an ag re em en t b e t w e e n M a i n e a n Q o w Ha mp sh ir e th at e n d e d a di sp ut e ov er a la te ra l ma ri ti me bo un da ry . ° ou r co nc lu de d th at be ca us e th e ag re em en t di d no t af fe ct th e ba la nc e 0 p o w e r be tw ee nt h e st at es a n d fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t or th re at en th e pr er og at iv es of the na ti on al go ve rn me nt , co ng re ss io na l co ns en t w a s no t re qu ir ed . hi Li ke wi se , th e Su pr em e Co ur t de te rm in ed ,i n U. S. St ee l Co rp . v. Mu lt is ta te Ta x Co mm is si on , th at co ng re ss io na l co ns en t w a s no t re qu ir ed fo r a c o m p a c t cr ea ti ng an in te rs ta te c o m m i s s i o n w h o s e pu rp os e w a s to de ve lo p u n o r m i t y an d co mp at ib il it y of st at e a n d lo ca l ta x la ws .> ? T h e C o u r t h e a Mu lt is ta te T a x C o m p a c t d i d no tg i v e to th e st at es an y p o w e r s th at th ey fi e no t _ al re ad y po ss es s in di vi du al ly no r di d th e ag re em en t i n t r u d e u p o n a te de ra in te re st .I n ad dr es si ng th e ap pe ll an t’ s co mp la in t th at th e Co ur t ha d ne ve r ap pr ov ed of a mu lt is ta te c o m p a c t cr ea ti ng a po we rf ul c o m m i s s i o n a b s e n t co ng re ss io na l co ns en t, th e C o u r t no te d: “ I t is tr ue th at m o s t m u l t i at er c o m pa ct s ha ve b e e n su bm it te d fo r co ng re ss io na l ap pr ov al . B u t th is hi st or ic a p r a c ti ce , w h i c h m a y si mp ly re fl ec t co ns id er at io ns of ca ut io n a n d a a n n a e n e l th e pa rt of th e su bm it ti ng St at es , is no t co nt ro ll in g{ .J Co ns eq ue nt ly , s e es m a y en te r ag re em en ts a m o n g th em se lv es wi th ou t th e co ns en t of C o n g r 52 . N e w H a m p s h i r e v. M a i n e , 4 2 6 U. S. 3 6 3 (1 97 6) . 0 7 8 ) 53 . U. S. St ee l Co rp . v. Mu lt is ta te Ta x C o m m ’ n , 4 3 4 U. S. 4 5 2 (1 . 34 . Id . 55 . Id . at 47 2. Se e al so No rt he as t Ba nc or p v. Bd . of Go ve rn or s of Fe d. Re se rv e Sy s. , 4 7 2 U . S . 15 9, 1 7 6 (1 98 5) (e ve n a s s u m i n g ce rt ai n ac ti on s or ag re ” m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g b a n k i n g in N e w E n g l a n d w e r e a n in te rs ta te c o ag re em en t d i d no t n e e d co ng re ss io na l c o n s e n t be ca us e i t ne it he r e n h a n c - th e p o w e r of t h e N e w En gl an ds t a t e s at th e ex pe ns e of ot he r st at es m im pa ct ed th e fe de ra l st ru ct ur e of th e go ve rn me nt ). 5 2 C h a p t e r 2 l o n g as th os e ag re em en ts d o no t in fr in ge o n fe de ra l in te re st s or sh if t th e ba la nc e of p o w e r wi th in th e fe de ra l st ru ct ur e of th e g o v e r n m e n t . E v e n w h e n st at es h a v e cu st om ar il y so ug ht co ng re ss io na l co ns en t fo r re as on s of ca ut io n a n d co nv en ie nc e, th e m e r e ac t of co ns en t is no t di sp os it iv e of wh et he r it w a s re qu ir ed . A c o m p a c t wi ll no t b e c o m e fe de ra l l a w si mp ly be ca us e Co ng re ss , in a n ex ce ss of ca ut io n, en ac ts co ns en t le gi sl at io n. ” C o m p a c t s no t re qu ir in g co ng re ss io na l co ns en t a r e st il l en fo rc ea bl e ag re e- m e n t s b e t w e e n th e st at es , an d di sp ut es ar is in g f r o m su ch ag re em en ts m a y e v e n b e ri pe fo r li ti ga ti on un de r th e S u p r e m e Co ur t’ s or ig in al ju ri sd ic ti on . S u c h c o m p a c t s ar e no t, ho we ve r, pr es um pt iv el y fe de ra l la w un de r t h e la w of th e u n i o n d o c t r i n e an d, th er ef or e, ar e n o t su bj ec t to i m m e d i a t e fe de ra l co ur t in te rv en ti on no r en fo rc ea bl e un de r th e S u p r e m a c y Cl au se . St at e co ur ts ar e fu ll y e m p o w e r e d to in te rp re t an d en fo rc e in te rs ta te ag re em en ts , an d fe de ra l co ur ts ar e r e q u i r e d to in te rp re t th e a g r e e m e n t a s st at e la w, n o t fe de ra l la w. F o r ex am pl e, th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n th e Pl ac em en t of Ch il dr en is no t a c o m p a c t re qu ir in g co ng re ss io na l co ns en t be ca us e it re gu la te s an ar ea ty pi - ca ll y wi th in th e pu rv ie w of th e st at es . A s no te d in M a l o n e v. W a m b a u g h , “ T h e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t on Pl ac em en t of Ch il dr en ha s no t re ce iv ed co ng re s- si on al co ns en t. Ra th er th an al te ri ng th e ba la nc e of p o w e r be tw ee n t h e s t a t e s a n d th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt , th is C o m p a c t fo cu se s wh ol ly o n ad op ti on an d fo st er ca re of ch il dr en —a re as o f ju ri sd ic ti on hi st or ic al ly re ta in ed by th e st at es . Co ng re ss io na l co ns en t, th er ef or e, w a s no t ne ce ss ar y fo r th e Co mp ac t’ s le gi ti - 5 6 . S e e C u y l e r v. A d a m s , 4 4 9 U . S . 4 3 3 , 4 4 0 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , in w h i c h t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t he ld , “ W h e r e an ag re em en t i s no t ‘d ir ec te d to th e fo rm ul at io n of a n y c o m - bi na ti on te nd in g to in cr ea se th e po li ti ca l p o w e r of th e St at es , w h i c h m a y en cr oa ch up on o r in te rf er e wi th th e ju st su pr em ac y of th e Un it ed St at es ,’ it do es n o t fa ll wi th in th e sc op e of th e Cl au se an d wi ll no t be in va li da te d fo r la ck of co ng re ss io na l co ns en t. ” E x a m p l e s of co mp ac ts no t re qu ir in g co n- gr es si on al co ns en t in cl ud e th e So ut he rn Re gi on al Ed uc at io n C o m p a c t an d th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t on th e Pl ac em en t of Ch il dr en . Al so d e e m e d to im - pl ic at e c o m p a c t c o n c e r n s bu t no t re qu ir in g co ng re ss io na l c o n s e n t w a s th e Ma st er Se tt le me nt A g r e e m e n t be tw ee n th e st at es an d to ba cc o co mp an ie s. S e e St ar Sc ie nc e, In c. v. Be al es , 2 7 8 F. 3d 3 3 9 (4 th Ci r. 2 0 0 2 ) ( a g r e e m e n t ac te d ve rt ic al ly be tw ee n th e st at es an d di d no t im pl ic at e an y po li ti ca l in - te re st s of th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t in s u c h a m a n n e r a s to vi ol at e th e C o m - pa ct Cl au se ). Li ke wi se , a mu lt is ta te g a m i n g ag re em en t w a s de em ed n o t to re qu ir e c o n g r e s s i o n a l co ns en t. S e e T i c h e n o r v. M i s s o u r i St at e Lo tt er y C o m m ’ n , 7 4 2 S. W. 2d 17 0 (M o. 19 88 ). 57 . W a s h . M e t r o . A r e a Tr an si t A u t h . v. O n e Pa rc el of L a n d , 7 0 6 F. 2d 1 3 1 2 (C ir . 4 t h 1 9 8 3 ) . TheFederalGov e r n m e n t ' s R o l e in In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 5 3 ma cy : + > B e c a u s e co ng re ss io na l co ns en t wa sn e i t h e r gi ve n no r re qu ir ed , th e C o m p a c t do es no t ex pr es s fe de ra l la w. Co ns eq ue nt ly , th is C o m p a c t m u s t b e co ns tr ue d as st at e la w. ”* 7 Th el a c k of “f ed er al iz at io n” c a n le ad to in co ns is te nt st at e co ur t de ci si on s th at ei th er re nd er th e go al of un if or mi ty di ff ic ul t to ac hi ev e or ca ll in to qu es ti on wh et he r an ag re em en te v e n co ns ti tu te s an en fo rc ea bl e c o m p a c t a m o n g th e m e m b e r st at es . T h e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n th e P l a c e m e n t o f C h i l d r e n ( I C P C ) is o n e ex am pl e o f th e p r o b l e m s t h a t c a n ar is e c o n c e r n i n g th e en fo rc e- ab il it y of su ch st at e ag re em en ts . I n Jn re Ad op ti on No . 10 08 7i n Ci rc ui t Co ur t, th e Ma ry la nd co ur ts de te rm in ed th at th e I C P C wa sn o t a co mp ac t bu t ra th er an in te rs ta te ag re em en t ef fe ct ua te d b y en ac tm en t of re ci pr oc al st at ut es .* * In th is se ns e, it w a s m o r e a k i n to a u n i f o r m l a w th an a n e n f o r c e a b l e c o m p a c t , no tw it hs ta nd in gi t s ti tl e an d ot he r co ur t de ci si on s fi nd in g th e ag re em en t co n- st it ut ed a co mp ac t b e t w e e n t h e st at es . Pe rh ap s th e gr ea te st be ne fi t, th er ef or e, of co ng re ss io na l co ns en ti s th e ve st in g in fe de ra l co ur ts of th e au th or it y to in te rp re t a c o m p a c t in a un if or m ma nn er . Ab se nt t h i s co ns is te nc y, th e in te r- pr et at io n of co mp ac ts is le ft to th e w h i m of th es ta te s, le ad in g to th e ex tr em e ca se of on e st at e de cl ar in g th ei r ag re em en t a co mp ac t ( a n d th er ef or e en fo rc e- ab le as a co nt ra ct ) an d an ot he r st at e de cl ar in g th ei r ag re em en t a m e r e un i- fo rm la w (s ub je ct to un il at er al a m e n d m e n t an d ch an ge ). T h e r e is ge ne ra ll y no qu es ti on re ga rd in g th e st at us or en fo rc ea bi li ty of in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s th at ap pr op ri at el y re ce iv e co ng re ss io na l co ns en t. 2. 1. 6 T h e Ef fe ct of Co ng re ss io na l C o n s e n t o n C o u r t Ju ri sd ic ti on C o m p a c t s o c c u p y a un iq ue p l a c e wi th in th e na ti on ’s la w, bo th as m e c h a - ni sm s fo r ad ju st in g in te rs ta te re la ti on s an d be ca us e of th e ef fe ct of co ng re s- si on al co ns en t o n su ch ag re em en ts . Th es t a t u s of c o m p a c t s ha s b e e n a so ur ce of co nf li ct in g th ou gh t ov er th e ye ar s. A s ea rl y as 18 52 , th e U. S. S u p r e m e Co ur t he ld in Pe nn sy lv an ia v. Wh ee li ng & B e l m o n t Br id ge C o m p a n y th at co mp ac ts sa nc ti on ed b y Co ng re ss b e c a m e th e “l aw of th e U n i o n . ” © B y c o n - tr as t, in Pe op le v. Ce nt ra l Ra il ro ad , th e S u p r e m e Co ur t su gg es te d th at in te r- st at e co mp ac ts co ul d no t b e co ns id er ed fe de ra l la w. 61 A l t h o u g h Pe op le ¥. Ce nt ra l Ra il ro ad re pr es en ts a pe ri od in A m e r i c a n hi st or y w h e n th e “f ed er al : st at us of co mp ac ts w a s qu es ti on ed ,t h i s po si ti on ha s la rg el y be en re je ct ed ; it is n o w wi de ly ac ce pt ed th at co ng re ss io na ll y ap pr ov ed c o m p a c t s ar e “f ed er al - 58 . M a l o n e v. W a m b a u g h , 9 3 4 F. 2d 47 4, 47 9 (3 d Ci r. 19 91 ). 59 . In re Ad op ti on No . 10 08 7 in Ci rc ui t Co ur t, 59 7 A . 2 d 4 5 6 (M d. 19 91 ). 60 . Pe nn sy lv an ia v. Wh ee li ng & Be lm on t B r i d g e Co ., 59 U. S. 42 1 (1 85 6) . 6 1 . P e o p l e v. C e n t . R . R . , 7 9 U . S . 4 5 5 ( 1 8 7 2 ) . 6 4 Ch ap te r 2 2. 1. 7. C o n t r a c t u a l N a t u r e of C o m p a c t s A l t h o u g h a co ng re ss io na ll y ap pr ov ed co mp ac t i s fe de ra li ze d, it re ma in s a co nt ra ct b e t w e e n th e m e m b e r st at es th at ge ne ra ll y m u s t be in te rp re te d an d e n f o r c e d w i t h i n th e f o u r c o r n e r s o f th e a g r e e m e n t . In in te rp re ti ng a n d en - fo rc in g co mp ac ts , th e co ur ts ar e co ns tr ai ne d to ef fe ct ua te th e te rm s of th e c o m p a c t as a bi nd in g co nt ra ct so lo ng as th os e te rm s do no t co nf li ct wi th co ns ti tu ti on al pr in ci pl es .’ F o r ex am pl e, in Te xa s v. N e w Me xi co , th e Su - p r e m e C o u r t su st ai ne d ex ce pt io ns to a Sp ec ia l Ma st er ’s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n to en la rg e th e Pe co s Ri ve r C o m p a c t co mm is si on ’s ru li ng th at o n e c o n s e q u e n c e of a c o m p a c t b e c o m i n g “a l a w of th e Un it ed St at es ” is th at “n o co ur t m a y or de r re li ef in co ns is te nt wi th it s ex pr es s te rm s. ”! I n th e ca se of He ll mu th v. Wa sh in gt on Me tr op ol it an A r e a Tr an si t Au th or it y, th e co ur t he ld th at Ma ry la nd ’s f r e e d o m of in fo rm at io n ac t di d no t ap pl y to W M A T A b e c a u s e t h e pa rt ie s h a d M W A A c o m p a c t ca nn ot be mo di fi ed un il at er al ly by st at e le gi sl at io n an d ta ke s p r e c e d e n c e ov er co nf li ct in g st at e la w. ”) Se e al so M c C o m b v . W a m b a u g h , 9 3 4 F. 2d 47 4, 47 9 (3 d Ci r. 19 91 ) (“ Ha vi ng en te re d in to a co n- tr ac t, a pa rt ic ip an t st at e m a y no t un il at er al ly ch an ge it s te rm s. A C o m p a c t al so ta ke s pr ec ed en ce o v e r st at ut or y l a w in m e m b e r st at es .” ); W a s h . M e t r o . A r e a Tr an si t A u t h . v. O n e Pa rc el o f L a n d , 7 0 6 F. 2d 1 3 1 2 (4 th Ci r. 1 9 8 3 ) (t he W M A T A ’ s “ q u i c k ta ke ” c o n d e m n a t i o n p o w e r s u n d e r th e c o m p a c t ar e su pe ri or to th e M a r y - la nd Co ns ti tu ti on , w h i c h ex pr es sl y pr oh ib it ed “q ui ck ta ke ” c o n d e m n a - ti on s) ; M a l o n e v. Wa sh . Me tr o. A r e a Tr an si t Au th ., 62 2 F. Su pp . 14 22 , 14 26 (E .D . Va . 19 85 ) (‘ Be ca us e co ng re ss io na ll y sa nc ti on ed in te rs ta te co mp ac ts wi th in th e me an in go f Ar t. 1, § 10 of th e Co ns ti tu ti on ar e fe de ra l la w, st at e la ws i n c o n s i s t e n t wi th th e t e r m s o f th es e c o m p a c t s ar e u n e n f o r c e a b l e as to a g e n c i e s f o r m e d b y th es e co mp ac ts .” ); K a n s a s Ci ty A r e a Tr an sp . A u t h . v. M i s s o u r i , 6 4 0 F. 2d 1 7 3 (8 th Ci r. 1 9 8 1 ) (“ On e p a r t y to a n in te rs ta te c o m p a c t m a y no t en ac t le gi sl at io n w h i c h w o u l d i m p o s e b u r d e n s u p o n th e c o m p a c t ab se nt th e co nc ur re nc eo f ot he rs ig na to ri es .” ). Se e al so Se at tl e Ma st er Bu il d- er s A s s ’ n v. Pa c. N . W . El ec . P o w e r & C o n s e r v a t i o n P l a n n i n g Co un ci l, 7 8 6 F. 2d 13 59 (9 th Ci r. 19 86 ). N. Y. St at e Da ir y Fo od s v. No rt he as t Da ir y C o m p a c t C o m m ’ n , 2 6 F. Su pp . 2d 24 9, af f' d, 19 8 F. 3d 1 (1 st Ci r. 19 99 ). ( O n c e a co mp ac t be tw ee ns t a t e s ha s be en ap pr ov ed , it is th e la w of th e ca se bi nd in g on th e st at es an di t s ci ti ze ns . C o n g r e s s i o n a l c o n s e n t tr an sf or ms a n in te rs ta te c o m p a c t in to a l a w o f th e U n i t e d St at es . U n l e s s th e c o m p a c t is s o m e h o w un co ns ti tu ti on al , n o co ur t m a y or de r re li ef in co ns is te nt w i t h it s ex pr es s te rm s, n o ma tt er w h a t th e eq ui ti es o f th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s m i g h t ot he rw is e in vi te .) 10 6. T e x a s v. N e w M e x i c o , 4 6 2 U . S . 55 4, 5 6 5 (1 98 3) . 10 5. e e TheFederalGovern m e n t ' s R o l e in In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 6 5 no t ag re ed to b e b o u n d b y M a r y l a n d l a w an d, th er ef or e, n o co ur t o e c r e e . ief i i i rt ed b y th e te rm s of th e pa rt ic ul ar - re li ef in co ns is te nt wi th or no t S u p p o | e t e e d i s . i t m a y ch an ge th e v e n u e in w h i c p me nt .' °? Co ng re ss io na l co ns en is : pu te s ar e ul ti ma te ly li ti ga te d; it do es no t ch an ge t h e co nt ro ll in g na tu re of re em en t on th e m e m b e r st at es . 6 Ho we ve r, al th ou gh co ur ts ha ve a c k n o w l e d g e d th at in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s , . . m e bi nd in g le ga l d o c u m e n t s be tw ee n ar e co nt ra ct s to th e ex te nt th ey ar e 8 M E E z e d i n d co nd it io ns , w h i c h m u s t be st at es th at se t fo rt h ce rt ai n te rm s an s e o o h a v e ied i it h th e in te nt o f th e a g r e e m e n t , an d ap pl ie d in ac co rd an ce w 1 ; i e o o r n o u g h a i i fe at ur es an d fu nc ti on s of co mp ac ts . al so re co gn iz ed th e un iq ue ns a a e t e e n i re se nt s a po li ti ca l c o m p co nt ra ct , an in te rs ta te co mp ac tr e p a e a e “ i io n, ” as op po se d to a c o m m e on st it ue nt el em en ts of th e U n i o n ti on 10 8 S u c h an ag re em en ti s ma de t o “a dd re ss in te re st s a n d p r o v e n th at d o co in ci de ni i i ti on al bo un da ri es or w i — no t co in ci de ni ce ly ei th er wi th th e na i vi e y c h a m i d or no t se rv ed at al i b y th e or di na ry in te re st s th at m a y be ba dl y se rv e ot ser v ' O i a C o i it ic al ac ti on ”” '? Co ns eq ue nt ly , Wl 2. ne ls of Na ti on al or St at e po li O N e a e o m i ac ts , th e ri gh t to su e fo r br ea co ng re ss io na ll y ap pr ov ed co mp ac ts , O i J o e s no t a r s e i ig ht cr ea te d b y a co mm er ci al co nt ra ct , f Ob ve pa ct di ff er s f r o m a n g S e s a l e s ge m. fe de ra l la w. W h i l e co nt ra ct p f r o m st at e c o m m o n l a w bu t f r o m : P p a e s i in te rp re ta ti on of a c o m p a c t an er al ly in fo rm an d co nt ro l th e in ) a o a e e e e tr ac t i i h, th e un de rl yi ng ac ti on is n o av ai la bl e in th e ev en t of a br ea ch , S e e e e i h e i in th e En gl is h l a w co ur ts 0 ct io n at c o m m o n la w as he ar d in Pd i g h te en th ce nt ur y. Ra th er , it is a co nt ro ve rs y th at in vo lv es in te rt wi ni ng co ns id er i to ry in te rp re ta ti on . at io ns of co nt ra ct l a w a n d st at u . T h e du al na tu re of a c o m p a c t as bo th st at ut or y l a w a n d a co nt ra ct b e -m op li ca ti on fo r th ei r in te rp re ta ti on an d e n . t w e e n th e st at es ha s im pl ic at io n ne E e to i i is pu te , co ur ts m a y lo ok to ex tr in si Un li ke a ty pi ca l co nt ra ct di sp ut e, a s e e e of th e i i i d to ef fe ct ua te th e de si re d r de te rm in e th e in te nt of th e pa rh es an oe A e eon y o t h e in si i su ch as a co mp ac t’ s le gi sl at iv e ry OF co mp ac t. Ex tr in si c ev id en ce , B S e y e n b i g u ia ti i x a m i n e d b y a co ur t in in te rp re ti ng ne go ti at io n hi st or y, m a y b e e a e t e r s is i 0 Th us , un li ke a st an da rd co nt ra pu te , ou s pr ov is io n of a co mp ac t. : w h e r or in ei pl es , su ch as th e pa ro le ev id en ce ru le , m a y re st ri ct th e in fl ue n j . M d . 10 7. H e l l m u t h v. W a s h . M e t r o . A r e a Tr an si t Au th ., 4 1 4 F. S u p p . 4 0 8 ( D 19 76 ). 10 8. H e s s v. Po rt Au th . T r a n s - H u d s o n Co rp ., 5 1 3 U. S. 30 , 4 0 (1 99 4) . . Id . 1 0 . A r i z o n a v. Ca li fo rn ia , 2 9 2 U. S. 34 1, 3 5 9 - 6 0 (1 93 4) ; G r e e n . B o a D M a c h . Co ., 4 9 0 U. S. 50 4, 5 1 1 (1 98 9) ; Pi er ce v. U n d e r w o o d , Ss . . 5 6 4 - 6 5 (1 98 8) ; B l u m v. St en so n, 4 6 5 U. S. 8 8 6 (1 98 4) . 6 6 C h a p t e r 2 ou ts id e ev id en ce in in te rp re ti ng a co nt ra ct pr ov is io n, re so rt to ex tr in si c ev i- de nc e of th e c o m p a c t ne go ti at io ns i s en ti re ly ap pr op ri at e be ca us e of th e du al na tu re of a co mp ac t as bo th a co nt ra ct an d s ta tu te .! "' In in te rp re ti ng a co m- pa ct wi th in it s st at ut or y co nt ex t, th e ge ne ra l ru le s of st at ut or y in te rp re ta ti on , no t co nt ra ct in te rp re ta ti on , m a y b e co nt ro ll in g. Th is is pa rt ic ul ar ly tr ue in th e co nt ex t of co ng re ss io na ll y ap pr ov ed co mp ac ts . 2. 2. F E D E R A L P A R T I C I P A T I O N I N C O M P A C T S Fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n a n d us e of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts is no t co nf in ed to ob ta in in g co ng re ss io na l co ns en t. W i t h in cr ea si ng fr eq ue nc y in re ce nt ye ar s, th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t ha s b e c o m e m o r e th an a m e r e co nf er re r of fe de ra l st at us th ro ug h th e co ns en t re qu ir em en t. I t is n o w no t un us ua l fo r th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt t o b e in vo lv ed di re ct ly in co mp ac t- cr ea te d ag en ci es ei th er as an ob se rv er , t h r o u g h di re ct m e m b e r s h i p o n a c o m m i s s i o n , o r t h r o u g h a b o d y o v e r w h i c h th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t e x e r c i s e s su bs ta nt ia l di re ct co nt ro l, s u c h as th e Di st ri ct of C o l u m b i a . T h r o u g h se ve ra l of th es e av en ue s, th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t pa rt ic ip at es in or is ac ti ve ly af fe ct ed b y co mp ac ts . E x a m p l e s in cl ud e th e W a s h i n g t o n Me tr op ol it an Tr an si t Re gu la ti on C o m p a c t , th e In te r- st at e C o m p a c t o n th e P o t o m a c R i v e r B a s i n , t h e O h i o R i v e r V a l l e y W a t e r Sa ni ta ti on C o m p a c t , th e U p p e r C o l o r a d o Ri ve r Ba si n C o m p a c t , th e D e l a w a r e Ri ve r Ba si n C o m p a c t , an d th e In te rs ta te A g r e e m e n t o n De ta in er s. Fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n in c o m p a c t s ta ke s se ve ra l fo rm s. E x a m p l e s of fu ll fe de ra l m e m b e r s h i p in an in te rs ta te co mp ac t in cl ud e t h e In te rs ta te A g r e e m e n t o n De ta in er s a n d th e Na ti on al C r i m e Pr ev en ti on a n d Pr iv ac y C o m p a c t . W h i l e fu ll fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n is cl ea rl y th e m o s t ov er t e x a m p l e of Co ng re ss us in g c o m p a c t s to ma na ge c o l l e c t i v e st at e ac ti on an d na ti on al af fa ir s, ot he r fo rm s al so ex is t. M o s t no ta bl y, in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s h a v e be co me i n s t r u m e n t s of fe de ra l co nt ro l in su ch ar ea s as cr im in al ju st ic e in fo rm at io n sh ar in g, wa te r ri gh ts , en er gy re gu la ti on s, a n d fe de ra l gr an t fu nd in g. In ea ch of th es e ar ea s, th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt , ei th er th ro ug h ov er t pa rt ic ip at io n or su bt le in vo lv e- me nt , ha s us ed th e in te rs ta te c o m p a c t in st ru me nt a s a br oa d re gu la to ry to ol , co nt ro ll in g no t on ly th e st at es , bu t al so fe de ra l ag en ci es a n d ev en co ur ts . Se ve ra l e x a m p l e s il lu st ra te th e ex te nt to w h i c h fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n in th e c o m p a c t pr oc es s ha s b e e n us ed to re gu la te st at e, fe de ra l, a n d in di vi du al co nd uc t. O n e m o s t no ta bl e e x a m p l e is th e Na ti on al C r i m e Pr ev en ti on an d Pr iv ac y C o m p a c t A c t of 19 98 , t h e so -c al le d “T ri pl e II I” co mp ac t. In en ac ti ng th e c o m p a c t , C o n g r e s s sp ec if ic al ly f o u n d “ a n in te rs ta te a n d F e d e r a l - S t a t e 11 1. O k l a h o m a v. N e w M e x i c o , 5 0 1 U. S. 2 2 1 (1 99 1) . B u t se e id . at 2 4 5 - 4 6 (R eh nq ui st , J. , di ss en ti ng ). T h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t ' s R o l e in In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 6 7 co mp ac t i s ne ce ss ar yt o fa ci li ta te au th or iz ed in te rs ta te cr im in al hi st or y re co rd ex ch an ge s fo r no nc ri mi na l- ju st ic e pu rp os es o n a un if or m ba si s[ .] ’! '? U n d e r it s te rm s, th e U. S. At to rn ey Ge ne ra l ha s au th or it y to ap po in t a 15 -m em be r go ve rn in g co un ci l, co mp ri si ng of bo th st at e a n d fe de ra l of fi ci al s ve st ed wi th au th or it y to pr om ul ga te ru le s a n d pr oc ed ur es go ve rn in g th e us e of cr im in al ju st ic e in fo rm at io n fo r no nc ri mi na l- ju st ic e pu rp os es , th e ru le s of w h i c h ar e “n ot to co nf li ct wi th FB I ad mi ni st ra ti on of th e II I Sy st em fo r cr im in al ju st ic e pu rp os es .” ”' '’ Th e F B I an d me mb er st at es ag re e to ma in ta in de ta il ed da ta ba se s of cr im in al hi st or y re co rd s an d to m a k e th os e re co rd s av ai la bl e t o th e fe de ra l g o v e r n m e n t a n d m e m b e r s t a t e s pu rs ua nt t o th e ru le s o f th e g o v e r n i n g c o u n - ci l, so lo ng as th os e ru le s do no t co nf li ct wi th th e FB I’ s ad mi ni st ra ti on of in fo rm at io n sy st em s. T h e im po rt an ce of th is co mp ac t il lu st ra te s th e p o w e r of c o m p a c t s a n d th ei r in te ra ct io n at th e fe de ra l le ve l ca nn ot b e un de rs ta te d. T h e no ti on th at th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt i s an “e qu al ” m e m b e r o f a co ng re ss io na ll y ap pr ov ed c o m p a c t m u s t be un de rs to od in th e co nt ex t of bo th fe de ra l- st at e re la ti on s o n in te rs ta te ma tt er s an d t h e pr ac ti ca l ef fe ct of th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt ’s pa rt ic i- pa ti on in an ag re em en t. Of te n fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n is a m e a n s of en co ur ag in g or co er ci ng st at es to un de rt ak e ce rt ai n ac ti on s. Th ou gh n o t sp ec if ic al ly st at ed , fe de ra l pa rt ic ip at io n in a re gu la to ry in te rs ta te c o m p a c t al so pr ov id es a di re ct me as ur e of co nt ro l ov er jo in t or co ll ec ti ve st at e ac ti on , co nt ro l th at w o u l d ot he rw is e be li mi te d to th e co nd it io ns Co ng re ss i m p o s e d as pa rt of gr an ti ng co ns en t. Th us , th e so -c al le d “T ri pl e II I” no t on ly en su re s th e re gu la ti on of in fo rm at io n sh ar in g am on g s ta te s, i t al so en su re s th at su ch re gu la ti on wi ll no t co nf li ct wi th or su pe rs ed e fe de ra l in te re st s ov er th e re gu la ti on of cr im in al ju st ic e in fo rm at io n sh ar in g. Cl ea rl y, Co ng re ss co ul d ha ve ex pr es sl y li mi te d th e au th or it y of th e co mp ac t’ s c o m m i s s i o n a n d ar gu ab ly di d so b y th e co n- st ru ct io n of th e co mp ac t. B u t Co ng re ss al so a d d e d an ot he r m e a s u r e of se cu r- in g fe de ra l in te re st s b y re qu ir in g th at th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt b e an ac ti ve a n d eq ua l m e m b e r o f th e co mp ac t’ s go ve rn in g co mm is si on . O n c e ag ai n, t h e la ck of an y re st ri ct io n or di re ct io n o n Co ng re ss ’s au th or it y ov er in te rs ta te c o m - pa ct s me an s, i n th e ma in , th at ab se nt a co ns ti tu ti on al pr oh ib it io n, Co ng re ss is es se nt ia ll y fr ee to u s e it s c o n s e n t p o w e r s as i t se es fi t, in cl ud in g i m p o s i n g re gu la to ry s c h e m e s o n bo th th e st at e an d fe de ra l go ve rn me nt s. E v e n in th e ab se nc e of di re ct pa rt ic ip at io n, fe de ra l ag en ci es ca n le ve ra ge co mp ac ts to su pp le me nt th ei r re gu la to ry po we rs . Pr oj ec ts fi na nc ed th ro ug h re so ur ce co ns er va ti on lo an s an d wa te rs he d lo an s m u s t c o m p l y wi th in te rs ta te 11 2. 4 2 U_ S. C. § 14 61 1 (2 00 3) . 11 3. 42 U. S. C. § 14 61 6 (2 00 3) . 1 2 6 C h a p t e r 4 al l li ti ga ti on in vo lv in g an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t m u s t be co nd uc te d in fe de ra l co ur t. T h e y ac t on ly to bi nd th e st at es an d an y co mp ac t- cr ea te d ad mi ni st ra - ti ve b o d y as to th e f o r u m fo r br in gi ng ac ti on s re ga rd in g th e en fo rc em en t an d in te rp re ta ti on of a c o m p a c t as to th e m e m b e r st at es . St at e co ur ts , su bj ec t to th e S u p r e m a c y Cl au se , w o u l d be re qu ir ed to de fe r to a co mp ac t’ s te rm s an d co nd it io ns ju st as a n y fe de ra l co ur t is re qu ir ed to d o w h e n co nf ro nt ed wi th c o m p a c t is su es . St at e co ur t ju ri sd ic ti on ov er c o m p a c t di sp ut es w o u l d pr e- s u m a b l y ex te nd to en fo rc in g th e te rm s of th e c o m p a c t on st at e of fi ci al s, an d e v e n de cl ar in g a st at e st at ut e, ru le , or co ns ti tu ti on al pr ov is io n vo id as co n- fl ic ti ng w i t h th e t e r m s of a c o m p a c t to w h i c h th at s t a t e is a m e m b e r . A st at e co ur t’ s ju ri sd ic ti on w o u l d no t, of co ur se , ex te nd to en fo rc in g a co mp ac t’ s te rm s a n d co nd it io ns on ot he rs ta te s, th at ma tt er re st in g cl ea rl y wi th th e fe d- er al co ur ts . T h e S u p r e m e Co ur t ha s co ns id er ed th e st at us of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts in co nn ec ti on wi th i t s ce rt io ra ri ju ri sd ic ti on .! ! In th es e ca se s, th e Co ur t ad dr es se d th e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r a c l a i m b a s e d o n an i n t e r s t a t e c o m p a c t is c o g n i z a b l e un de r th e S u p r e m e Co ur t’ s ce rt io ra ri pr ov is io ns as ap pl ie d to re vi ew in g th e j u d g m e n t s o f th e h i g h e s t st at e co ur t wh er e a t i t l e , ri gh t, pr iv il eg e or i m m u - ni ty is c l a i m e d un de rt h e Co ns ti tu ti on , tr ea ti es , or st at ut es of th e U n i t e d St at es ." In C o l b u r n , th e C o u r t u n e q u i v o c a l l y a n s w e r e d th is qu es ti on af fi rm at iv el y, h o l d i n g : [ T ] h e co ns tr uc ti on o f s u c h a [b i- st at e] c o m p a c t s a n c t i o n e d b y vi rt ue of Ar ti cl e I, se ct io n 10 , cl au se 3 of th e Co ns ti tu ti on , in vo lv es a fe d- er al “t it le , ri gh t, pr iv il eg e or im mu ni ty ,” w h i c h w h e n sp ec ia ll y se t u p a n d cl ai me di n st at e co ur t m a y be re vi ew ed he re o n ce rt io ra ri un de rs e c t i o n 2 3 7 (b ) of th e Ju di ci al C o d e . ¥ In re ac hi ng t h i s in te rp re ta ti on of t h e ce rt io ra ri st at ut e, th e S u p r e m e Co ur t in C o l b u r n an d it s pr og en y ha s fi rm ly es ta bl is he d th at th e co ns tr uc ti on of a co mp ac t, b y vi rt ue of co ng re ss io na l co ns en t, pr es en ts a fe de ra l qu es ti on . 4. 2) A P P L I C A T I O N O F F E D E R A L A N D S T A T E L A W T O C O M P A C T D I S P U T E S B e c a u s e in te rs ta te co mp ac ts ar e ag re em en ts am on g t h e st at es , su it s be - 11 . S e e D e l a w a r e Ri ve r C o m m ' n v. Co lb ur n, 3 1 0 U. S. 41 9, 4 2 7 (1 94 0) ; W e s t Vi rg in ia e x re l. D y e r v. S i m s , 3 4 1 U. S. 22 , 2 8 (1 95 1) . 12 . Id . 13 . D e l a w a r e R i v e r C o m m ' n v . Co lb ur n, 3 1 0 U. S. 41 9, 4 2 7 (1 94 0) . C o u r t Ju ri sd ic ti on o v e r In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 1 2 7 t w e e n th e pa rt ie s o v e r th ei r in te rp re ta ti on a n d e n f o r c e m e n t or to vi nd ic at e ri gh ts ar is in g un de r t h e m us ua ll y ha ve be en su it s in th e U. S. S u p r e m e Co ur t. Si nc e th e fe de ra l Co ns ti tu ti on pr ov id es or ig in al ju ri sd ic ti on ov er su it s be - tw ee n st at es , re co ur se ha s be en m a d e in th at ma nn er .’ * Ad di ti on al ly as ha s be en no te d, in te rs ta te co mp ac ts th at ha ve re ce iv ed co ng re ss io na l co ns en t ar e tr an sf or me d in to fe de ra l la w. Th er ef or e, an in te rs ta te co mp ac t re qu ir in g ju - di ci al de te rm in at io n of th e na tu re an d sc op eo f th e ob li ga ti on s th er eu nd er i s su bj ec t to fe de ra l co ns tr uc ti on .” ° So me d i s p u t e s ar is in g un de r an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t m a y pr op er ly be li ti - ga te d in th e st at e co ur ts , pa rt ic ul ar ly w i t h re sp ec t to in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s fo r w h i c h co ng re ss io na l co ns en t i s ne it he r gi ve n no r re qu ir ed . W h i l e co mp ac ts su ch as th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n an dt h e In te r- st at e Co mp ac t f o r Ju ve ni le s h a v e ch oi ce of f o r u m re qu ir em en ts , s u c h re st ri c- ti on s ac t on ly to bi nd th e st at es an d an y co mp ac t- cr ea te d ad mi ni st ra ti ve b o d y as to th e f o r u m fo r br in gi ng ac ti on s re ga rd in g th at en fo rc em en t an d in te rp re - ta ti on of th e c o m p a c t as to th e m e m b e r st at es . T h e s e pr ov is io ns d o no ta u t o - ma ti ca ll y pr ec lu de a pr iv at e ci ti ze n f r o m su in g in st at e co ur t, no r d o th ey pr ev en t st at e co ur ts f r o m en fo rc in g th e te rm s of a c o m p a c t as a co ll at er al ma tt er to ot he r li ti ga ti on .’ ® Ho we ve r, pa rt ic ul ar ly w h e r e co ng re ss io na l co n- se nt ha s be en gi ve n, st at e co ur ts , su bj ec t to th e S u p r e m a c y Cl au se , ar e re - qu ir ed to de fe r to th e co mp ac t’ s te rm s an d co nd it io ns , ju st as an y fe de ra l co ur t is re qu ir ed to do w h e n co nf ro nt ed wi th co mp ac t is su es . B y en te ri ng in to a co mp ac t, th e m e m b e r s t a t e s co nt ra ct ua ll y ag re e on ce rt ai n pr in ci pl es an d ru le s pe rt ai ni ng to th e su bj ec t ma tt er of th e co mp ac t. On ce en te re d, th e te rm s of th e co mp ac t, as we ll as an y ru le s au th or iz ed b y th e co mp ac t, su pe rs ed e su bs ta nt iv e st at e la ws th at m a y be in co nf li ct , in cl ud in g st at e co ns ti tu ti on al pr ov is io ns un le ss e x e m p t e d by th e co mp ac t’ s pr ov is io ns ." ” Th is ap pl ie st o pr io rs ta te la w' * an d su bs eq ue nt st at ut es o f th e si gn at or y st at es .' Mo re ov er , st at es m u s t no t ta ke un il at er al ac ti on s, su ch as th e ad op ti on of 14 . FR ED ER IC K L. ZI MM ER MA N & MI TC HE LL WE ND EL L, T H E L a w AN D U S E OF IN TE RS TA TE C o m p a c t s 14 (1 97 6) . 15 . S e e C a r c h m a n v . N a s h , 4 7 3 U. S. 7 1 6 (1 98 5) ; C u y l e r v. A d a m s , 4 4 9 U S . 4 4 3 19 81 ). 16 . Se e Fn de rl id er v. L a Pl at a Ri ve r & Ch er ry Cr ee k Di tc h Co ., 30 4 U. S. 92 (1 93 8) . 17 . We st V i r g i n i a ex re l. D y e r v. Si ms , 3 4 1 U. S. 2 2 (1 95 1) . 18 . S e e Hi nd er li de r v. L a Pl at a Ri ve r & C h e r r y C r e e k Di tc h Co ., 7 0 P. 2d 8 4 9 (C ol o. 19 37 ), re v' d, 3 0 4 U. S. 9 2 (1 93 8) . ~ 19 . Se e Gr ee n v. Bi dd le , 21 U. S. 1, 92 (1 82 3) . 1 2 8 C h a p t e r 4 co nf li ct in g le gi sl at io n or th e is su an ce of ex ec ut iv e or de rs or co ur t ru le s, th at vi ol at e th e te rm s of a c o m p a c t . ” B a s e d on th is -p ri nc ip le , a n u m b e r of l o w e r co ur ts h a v e al so re af fi rm ed th e pr in ci pl e th at th e pr ov is io ns of a c o m p a c t ta ke pr ec ed en ce ov er st at ut or y la w in me mb er st at es .? ! 4. 3. A P P L I C A T I O N O F C O N T R A C T L A W T O C O M P A C T S In te rs ta te co mp ac ts ar e in it ia te d b y th e ad op ti on of en ab li ng st at ut es b y th e le gi sl at ur es of th e m e m b e r st at es . A s fo rm al ag re em en ts be tw ee n s ta te s, th ey h a v e th e ch ar ac te ri st ic s of bo th st at ut or y l a w an d co nt ra ct ua l ag re e- me nt s. A s bo th s t a t u t e s an d co nt ra ct s, th e su bs ta nt iv e la w of co nt ra ct s is ap - pl ic ab le to th em .” 4. 3. 1 O f f e r U s i n g th e co nt ra ct la w an al ys is , th e pr op os ed co mp ac t st at ut e ad op te d b y th e fi rs t st at e to en ac t, an d w h i c h in vi te s ot he r st at es to b e c o m e a pa rt y to th e ag re em en t, co ns ti tu te s th e of fe r. A s wi th an y ot he r co nt ra ct , th e in ce pt io n of a c o m p a c t m u s t be in a f o r m of an of fe r to m a k e a bi nd in g ag re em en t. Si nc e a c o m p a c t is an in st ru me nt th at is al so a st at ut e, a n d al wa ys ha s th e fo rc e a n d ef fe ct o f a n y ot he r st at ut or y la w, th e of fe r m u s t b e m a d e in a m a n n e r t h a t pr od uc es s u c h l a w in th e ju ri sd ic ti on in w h i c h th e of fe r is m a d e . T h e c o m p a c t pr ov is io ns ty pi ca ll y id en ti fy th e ju ri sd ic ti on s to w h i c h th e en ac ti ng ju ri sd ic - ti on (o ff er or ) of fe rs to bi nd it se lf .? 3 4. 3. 2 A c c e p t a n c e T h e ac ce pt an ce o f t h e of fe r oc cu rs w h e n an y su bs eq ue nt st at e le gi sl at ur e (o ff er ee ) en ac ts th e c o m p a c t st at ut e in su bs ta nt ia ll y id en ti ca l f o r m to th at co nt ai ne d in th e of fe ri ng st at e’ s en ac tm en t. It is a fu nd am en ta l re qu ir em en t in th e su bs ta nt iv e l a w of co nt ra ct s th at n o ac t co ns ti tu te s an ac ce pt an ce un le ss it is an ac ce pt an ce of th e of fe r th at ha s be en m a d e . Co ns eq ue nt ly , th e s a m e pr ob le ms r a i s e d b y th e va ri an ce in th e te rm s of th e of fe r a n d ac ce pt an ce in 20 . Se e N. E. Ba nc or p v. Bd . of Go ve rn or s of Fe d. Re se rv e Sy s. , 4 7 2 U. S. 15 9, 1 7 5 (1 98 5) , 21 . S e e W a s h . Me tr o. A r e a Tr an si t A u t h . v. O n e Pa rc el of L a n d , 7 0 6 F. 2d 13 12 , 13 19 (4 th Ci r. 19 83 ); Ka ns as Ci ty Ar ea Tr an sp . Au th . v. Mi ss ou ri , 64 0 F. 2d 1 7 3 , 1 7 4 ( 8 t h Ci r. 1 9 8 1 ) . 22 . F R E D E R I C K L. Z I M M E R M A N & M I T C H E L L W E N D E L L , T H E L A W A N D U s e OF I N T E R S T A T E Co mp ac ts 2 (1 97 6) . 23 . Id . at 7- 8. C o u r t Ju ri sd ic ti on ov er In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 1 2 9 th e c o m m o n law o f co nt ra ct s al so ca n cr ea te si mi la r p r o b l e m s in th e ne go ti a- ti on o f in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s . B e c a u s e c o m p a c t s a r e st at ut es , i t is i m p o s s i b l e to en te r in to t h e m or al ly or b y an ex ch an ge of ot he r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s th at w o u l d ot he rw is e le ad to m a n y of t h e tr ou bl es om e co nt ro ve rs ie s wi th ot he r ty pe s of co nt ra ct ua l a g r e e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , ca re s h o u l d b e t a k e n to e n a c t jd en ti ca ) te xt s in th e st at ut or y la w of a l l co mp ac ti ng ju ri sd ic ti on s. 4. 3. 3. M u t u a l Co ns en t o r “ M e e t i n g of th e M i n d s ” Wh er e t h e st at ut or y te xt s of a c o m p a c t pu ta ti ve ly en te re d in to by e l i g i b l e st at es ha ve no t be en id en ti ca l, th e p r o b l e m ra is ed ha s b e e n th e cu st om ar y on e in co nt ra ct la w: A r e th e va ri at io ns i n th e re le va nt st at ut or y e n a c t m e n t s su ff i- ci en tl y si mi la r to p e r m i t a r e a s o n a b l e p e r s o n to c o n c l u d e th at a n a g r e e m e n t ha s be en re ac he d? Fo r ex am pl e, du e to it s ad op ti on of a ve rs io n of an ea rl ie r dr af t of th e c o m p a c t st at ut e th at it mi st ak en ly be li ev ed w a s th e fi na l dr af t, th e St at e of N e w Ha mp sh ir e’ s in it ia l at te mp t to be co me a p a r t y to th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t on Ju ve ni le s fa il ed . Be ca us e a l l th e ot he r st at es th at ad op te d th e m e a s u r e ha d in fa ct ad op te d th e m o s t re ce nt ve rs io n, th e N e w H a m p s h i r e co mp ac t st at ut e w a s no t id en ti ca li n al l ma te ri al re sp ec ts . T h e er ra nt pr ov is io ns co nc er ne d th e pr es cr ib ed me th od o f af fe ct in g th e re tu rn of a ru na wa yo r e s c a p e e , as we ll as a pr ov is io n th at sp ec if ie d gu be rn at or ia l pa rt ic ip at io n in th e re qu is it io ni ng p r o c e s s re qu ir ed fo r th e re tu rn o f s u c h ju ve ni le s, w h i l e th e ve rs io ns e n a c t e d by th e ot he r st at es m a d e th is un ne ce ss ar y a n d pe rm it te d a di re ct co ur t- to - co ur t ap pr oa ch . Su bs eq ue nt ly , th e le gi sl at ur e co rr ec te d th is er ro r b y en ac ti ng th e pr ov is io ns o f th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t on Ju ve ni le s as ad op te d by th e ot he r St at es an d su cc es sf ul ly jo in ed th e co mp ac t. A di ff er en t re su lt w a s re ac he d in th e ca se of a V e r m o n t en ac tm en t o f a ci vi l de fe ns e c o m p a c t wh er ei t s ve rs io n of th e c o m p a c t st at ut e w a s id en ti ca l to th e c o m p a c t st at ut es ad op te d b y th e ot he r m e m b e r st at es in al mo st al l re sp ec ts wi th th e ex ce pt io n of th e i m m u n i - ti es g i v e n to ci vi l d e f e n s e w o r k e r s f r o m an ot he r s t a t e se nt to r e n d e r ai d. In th at ca se it w a s de te rm in ed by mu tu al ag re em en t of Ve rm on t a n d th e ot he r m e m b e r st at es th at th ey w e r e co nt ra ct ua ll y bo un d t o on e an ot he rt o th e ex te nt of th e si mi la ri ty in th e re sp ec ti ve ve rs io ns of th e c o m p a c t . ” No tw it hs ta nd in g th es ec on ce rn s, t h e en ab li ng le gi sl at io n do es no t ha ve to be un if or m in ea ch co mp ac t st at ut e an d ca n be ut il iz ed “‘ to fi t va ri at io ns in to th e co mp ac tu al pa tt er n. ”* 5 Pr ov is io ns in th e en ab li ng le gi sl at io n ca n be us ed to co nd it io n th e im pa ct of a co mp ac t i n a st at e. La st -m in ut e de ve lo pm en ts 24 . Id . at 9. 25 . Id . at 20 . 1 3 2 C h a p t e r 4 E v e n t h o u g h co ur ts ha ve ac kn ow le dg ed t h a t in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ar e co n- tr ac ts to th e ex te nt th ey ar e a bi nd in g le ga l d o c u m e n t a m o n g an d b e t w e e n pa rt y st at es th at se t fo rt h te rm s an d co nd it io ns th at m u s t be co ns tr ue d a n d ap pl ie d in ac co rd an ce wi th th e in te nt of th e ag re em en t, co ur ts h a v e al so re c- og ni ze d th e un iq ue fe at ur es a n d fu nc ti on s of c o m p a c t s as c o m p a r e d wi th ot he r so rt s o f co nt ra ct ua l a g r e e m e n t s . T h o u g h a co nt ra ct , a n in te rs ta te c o m - pa ct re pr es en ts a po li ti ca l c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n “c on st it ue nt el em en ts of th e Un io n, ” as o p p o s e d to a c o m m e r c i a l tr an sa ct io n. S u c h an ag re em en t i s m a d e to “a dd re ss in te re st s a n d pr ob le ms t h a t d o no t co in ci de ni ce ly ei th er wi th th e na ti on al bo un da ri es or wi th St at e li ne s— in te re st s th at m a y be ba dl y se rv ed or no t se rv ed at al l b y th e or di na ry ch an ne ls of Na ti on al or St at e po li ti ca l ac - ti on .” *> Co ns eq ue nt ly , wi th re ga rd to co ng re ss io na ll y ap pr ov ed co mp ac ts , th e ri gh t to su e fo r br ea ch of th e c o m p a c t ag re em en t di ff er s f r o m a ri gh t cr ea te d b y a c o m m e r c i a l co nt ra ct ; it do es no t ar is e f r o m st at e c o m m o n l a w bu t f r o m fe de ra l la w. W h i l e co nt ra ct pr in ci pl es m a y in fo rm th e in te rp re ta ti on of a c o m p a c t a n d th e r e m e d i e s av ai la bl e in th e e v e n t o f br ea ch , th e u n d e r l y i n g ac ti on i s no t li ke a co nt ra ct ac ti on at c o m m o n l a w as he ar d in th e En gl is h l a w co ur ts of th e la te ei gh te en th ce nt ur y. ** 4. 3. 7. P a r o l E v i d e n c e Ex tr in si c ev id en ce m a y be co ns id er ed b y co ur ts , w h e n ap pr op ri at e, to de - te rm in e th e in te nt of th e pa rt ie s to an in te rs ta te c o m p a c t an d to ef fe ct ua te th e de si re d pu rp os e of th e co mp ac t. S u c h ev id en ce as th e co mp ac t’ s le gi sl at iv e hi st or y or ne go ti at io n hi st or y m a y be e x a m i n e d in in te rp re ti ng an a m b i g u o u s pr ov is io n of a c o m p a c t in th e s a m e ma nn er a s an y ot he r co nt ra ct .? ’ Th us , un li ke in st an da rd co nt ra ct di sp ut es , w h e r e th e pa ro l ev id en ce ru le is m o r e re st ri ct iv e of th e ad mi ss ib il it y an d in fl ue nc e of ou ts id e ev id en ce in co nt ra ct in te rp re ta ti on , re so rt to ex tr in si c e v i d e n c e o f th e c o m p a c t ne go ti at io ns is en - ti re ly ap pr op ri at e. A s th e Co ur t st at ed in O k l a h o m a v. N e w Me xi co , ‘ T h e us e of ex tr in si c ev id en ce to in te rp re t an d en fo rc e a co mp ac t ar is es f r o m th e du al na - tu re of su ch ag re em en ts as bo th st at ut or y an d co nt ra ct ua l in na tu re .” 34 . He ss v . Po rt A u t h . T r a n s - H u d s o n Co rp ., 5 1 3 U. S. 3 0 , 4 0 (1 99 4) . 35 . Id . 36 . Se e In te rs ta te C o m m i s s i o n fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n, Tr ai ni ng Ou t- li ne 11 (2 00 4) , av ai la bl e ar ht tp :/ /w ww .i nt er st at ec om pa ct .o rg . 37 . A r i z o n a v. Ca li fo rn ia , 2 9 2 U. S. 3 4 1 (1 93 4) . S e e al so G r e e n v. B o c k L a u n d r y M a c h . Co ., 4 9 0 U. S. 5 0 4 (1 98 9) ; Pi er ce v. U n d e r w o o d , 4 8 7 U. S. 5 5 2 (1 98 8) ; B l u m v. St en so n, 46 5 U. S. 88 6 (1 98 4) . 38 . O k l a h o m a v. N e w M e x i c o , 5 0 1 U. S. 2 2 1 (1 99 1) . C h a p t e r 5 S T R U C T U R E S F O R A D M I N I S T E R I N G I N T E R S T A T E C O M P A C T S 5. 1 A D M I N I S T R A T I O N B Y E X I S T I N G S T A T E A G E N C I E S A N D O F F I C I A L S 1 3 3 5. 2 “ C O M P A C T A D M I N I S T R A T O R S ” ; N E W S T A T E E N T I T I E S 1 3 5 5. 3. A D M I N I S T R A T I O N B Y A S S O C I A T I O N S 1 3 7 5. 4 A D M I N I S T R A T I O N B Y I N T E R S T A T E A G E N C I E S 1 4 0 On e o f t h e ha ll ma rk so f th ei nt er st at e c o m p a c t m e c h a n i s m isi t s fl ex ib il - it y. C o m p a c t s ca n an d d o se rv e m a n y pu rp os es , a n d th ey as su me a va ri et y of fo rm s, ra ng in g f r o m si mp le , bi -s ta te ag re em en ts th at pe rm an en tl y re so lv e di sc re te is su es to co mp le x, mu lt is ta te re gu la to ry s c h e m e s of a fa r m o r e dy - n a m i c na tu re . Si mi la rl y, th e m e a n s b y w h i c h c o m p a c t s ar e ad mi ni st er ed , an d th e f r a m e w o r k s th ey es ta bl is h fo r th ei r o w n im pl em en ta ti on , va ry wi de ly de pe nd in g o n th e pu rp os e, sc op e, a n d in tr ic ac y of a pa rt ic ul ar ag re em en t. T h i s c h a p t e r l o o k s at s o m e al te rn at iv e st ru ct ur es fo r th e g o v e r n a n c e an da d - mi ni st ra ti on of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts . I t al so hi gh li gh ts th e st re ng th s a n d w e a k - ne ss es as so ci at ed wi th ea ch op ti on . 5. 1 A D M I N I S T R A T I O N B Y E X I S T I N G S T A T E A G E N C I E S A N D O F F I C I A L S Se lf -e xe cu ti ng c o m p a c t s th at pe rm an en tl y se tt le an in te rs ta te is su e be - tw ee n th e pa rt ie s (e .g ., bi -s ta te bo un da ry ag re em en ts ) ty pi ca ll y e m b o d y th e fu ll ex te nt of th e ag re em en t be tw ee n th e pa rt ic ip at in g m e m b e r s an d, th er e- fo re , re qu ir e li tt le or n o ad mi ni st ra ti ve m a c h i n e r y to e n s u r e th ei r su cc es sf ul im pl em en ta ti on . I n th os e in st an ce s, h o w e v e r , w h e r e c o m p l i a n c e w i t h th e t e r m s of su ch an ag re em en t i s no t a si mp le ma tt er to ac hi ev e or as ce rt ai n, at le as t So me p r o v i s i o n is us ua ll y m a d e fo r th e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e de al . O n e ap pr oa ch i s to as si gn ge ne ra l ov er si gh t du ti es to ex is ti ng ag en - C1 es or of fi ci al s wi th in th e m e m b e r s t a t e s . F o r e x a m p l e , th e C o l o r a d o R i v e r 13 3 13 4 Ch ap te r 5 ° C o m p a c t , w h i c h pr es cr ib ed a fi xe d al lo ca ti on o f w a t e r s be tw ee n s t a t e s in th e u p p e r a n d lo we r Co lo ra do Ri ve rb a s i n s , in cl ud ed ana r t i c l e as si gn in g ba si c ad mi ni st ra ti ve an d co mp li an ce re sp on si bi li ti es fo r th e ag re em en t to th e ap - pr op ri at e of fi ci al s in ea ch pa rt y st at e. Sp ec if ic al ly , Ar ti cl e V of th e c o m p a c t pr ov id ed : T h e ch ie fo ff ic ia l of ea ch si gn at or y St at e ch ar ge d wi th th e ad mi ni s- tr at io n o f w a t e r ri gh ts , to ge th er w i t h th e D i r e c t o r o f th e U n i t e d St at es Re cl am at io n Se rv ic e an d th e Di re ct or of th e Un it ed St at es Ge ol og i- ca l S u r v e y sh al l co op er at e, e x of fi ci o: (a ) T o p r o m o t e th e s y s t e m a t i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n o f th e fa ct s as to fl ow , ap pr op ri at io n, co ns um pt io n, an d us e of w a - te r in th e Co lo ra do Ri ve r Ba si n, a n d th e in te rc ha ng eo f a v a i l a b l e in fo rm at io n in su ch ma tt er s. (b ) T o s e c u r e th e a s c e r t a i n m e n t a n d pu bl ic at io n o f th e a n n u a l f l o w of th e Co lo ra do Ri ve r at L e e Fe rr y. {c ) T o p e r f o r m su ch ot he r du ti es as m a y b e as si gn ed by mu tu al co n- se nt of th e si gn at or ie s f r o m ti me t o ti me .? T h e a g r e e m e n t al so pr ov id ed fo r th e co nt in ge nt ap po in tm en t b y th e m e m - be r st at es ’ go ve rn or s of co mm is si on er s e m p o w e r e d to re so lv e an y di sp ut es th at m i g h t ar is e am on g t h e pa rt ie s re la te d to th e ad mi ni st ra ti on an d en fo rc e- m e n t of t h e c o m p a c t . B e y o n d th es e re la ti ve ly s i m p l e te rm s, h o w e v e r , n o ad di ti on al ad mi ni st ra ti ve pr ov is io ns w e r e r e q u i r e d by , or i n c l u d e d in , th e ag re em en t. A mo re r e c e n t e x a m p l e of th is ap pr oa ch to c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra ti on w a s p r o v i d e d b y th e In te rs ta te C o r r e c t i o n s C o m p a c t , w h i c h p e r m i t s th e c o o p e r a - ti ve in ca rc er at io n a n d re ha bi li ta ti on of cr im in al of fe nd er s. Wi th ou t es ta bl is h- in g an y n e w en ti ti es or re qu ir in g th e de si gn at io n of a n y pa rt ic ul ar au th or it ie s, th e c o m p a c t in st ea d pl ac es th e bu rd en of it s ad mi ni st ra ti on va ri ou sl y u p o n th e “d ul y co ns ti tu te d au th or it ie s, ” “a pp ro pr ia te of fi ci al s, ’ “a pp ro pr ia te au - th or it ie s, ” a n d “d ul y ac cr ed it ed of fi ce rs ” of th e pa rt y st at es , th us gi vi ng th e pa rt ic ip at in g ju ri sd ic ti on s a gr ea t de al of fl ex ib il it y to de te rm in e fo r th em - se lv es h o w be st t o di st ri bu te co mp ac t- re la te d p o w e r s an d du ti es wi th in th ei r ow n e x i s t i n g ag en ci es .? 1. C o l o r a d o Ri ve r C o m p a c t , ar t. V (1 92 1) . 2. C o l o r a d o R i v e r C o m p a c t , ar t. V I ( 1 9 2 1 ) . 3. In te rs ta te Co rr ec ti on s Co mp ac t, ar t. IV , §§ (a ), (b ), & (£) ; a rt . V, § (a ) (1 99 7) . St ru ct ur es f o r A d m i n i s t e r i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 1 3 5 T h i s f o r m of c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra ti on w o r k s be st w i t h re sp ec t to se lf - ex ec ut in g, fi xe d ag re em en ts th at re qu ir e li tt le or n o on go in g ov er si gh t a n d th os e ag re em en ts ,l ik e th e In te rs ta te Co rr ec ti on s Co mp ac t, th at ca n ad eq ua te ly b e a d m i n i s t e r e d (i n th is ca se , p u r s u a n t to th e t e r m s o f m o r e de ta il ed su bs id - ia ry ag re em en ts b e t w e e n th e pa rt ie s* ) th ro ug h ex is ti ng st at e en ti ti es . O n e ob vi ou s ad va nt ag e of th is ap pr oa ch is th at it is re la ti ve ly in ex pe ns iv e. A n - ot he r is th at it al lo ws pa rt ic ip at in g st at es to pu rs ue co op er at iv e go al s wi th ou t ex pa nd in g th ei r o w n bu re au cr ac ie s. Th is ca n be a st ro ng se ll in g po in t f o r a pr op os ed co mp ac t, es pe ci al ly w h e n fi na nc ia l re so ur ce s ar e in sh or t su pp ly . O n th e ot he r h a n d , re li an ce o n ex is ti ng st at e a g e n c i e s c a n u n d e r m i n e a c o m p a c t ’ s po te nt ia l ef fe ct iv en es s if , fo r e x a m p l e , th e in te rn al di st ri bu ti on o f ad mi ni st ra ti ve re sp on si bi li ti es wi th in m e m b e r st at es is no ts uf fi ci en tl y cl ea r, or i f th e sp ec if ie d ad mi ni st ra ti ve au th or it ie s ar e no t ad eq ua te ly eq ui pp ed wi th th e re so ur ce s th ey ne ed to fu lf il l th ei r co mp ac t- re la te d du ti es . 5. 2 “ C O M P A C T A D M I N I S T R A T O R S ” ; N E W S T A T E E N T I T I E S M a n y in te rs ta te co mp ac ts go at le as t on e st ep b e y o n d th e si mp le (a nd of te n un sp ec if ie d) de le ga ti on of ad mi ni st ra ti ve re sp on si bi li ti es to ex is ti ng st at e ag en ci es by re qu ir in g pa rt y st at es to af fi rm at iv el y de si gn at e of fi ci al co mp ac t ad mi ni st ra to rs . Th ou gh t h e st at es us ua ll y re ta in co ns id er ab le di sc re - ti on wi th re sp ec t to su ch ap po in tm en ts , s o m e co mp ac ts re qu ir e th e se le ct io n of ad mi ni st ra to rs w h o po ss es s ce rt ai n qu al if ic at io ns or w h o re pr es en t sp ec i- fi ed ag en ci es wi th in th ei r st at es . T h e Dr iv er Li ce ns e C o m p a c t , fo r ex am pl e, pr ov id es th at , “ T h e he ad o f t h e li ce ns in g au th or it y of ea ch pa rt y st at e sh al l b e ad mi ni st ra to r of th is c o m p a c t fo r hi s st at e. ”> Si mi la rl y, th e pr op os ed N e w En gl an d C o m p a c t o n In vo lu nt ar y De te nt io n fo r Tu be rc ul os is Co nt ro l re qu ir es th at ea ch pa rt ic ip at in g st at e’ s c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra to r“ s h a l l be th e he ad o f th e st at e ag en cy re sp on si bl e fo r tu be rc ul os is co nt ro l. ”® T h e po we rs a n d du ti es as si gn ed by co mp ac ts to th ei r de si gn at ed ad mi ni s- tr at or s ca n va ry , bu t m o s t ag re em en ts th at re ly on th is m o d e l fo r th ei r ad mi n- is tr at io n pr ov id e ge ne ra ll y th at th e au th or iz ed ad mi ni st ra to rs sh al l b e re sp on si bl e fo r th e in it ia l im pl em en ta ti on of th e co mp ac t, fo r th e in te rn al en fo rc em en t of it s te rm s, an d fo r th e ov er si gh t of a n y on go in g co mp ac t- re la te d ac ti vi ti es . S o m e co mp ac ts al so re qu ir e th ei r ad mi ni st ra to rs to se rv e as of fi ci al li ai so ns o n be ha lf of th ei r re sp ec ti ve st at es , to he lp en su re ef fe ct iv e 4, Id . at ar t. TI L 5. Dr iv er Li ce ns e C o m p a c t , ar t. V I I (a ) (1 95 8) . 6. N e w E n g l a n d C o m p a c t o n In vo lu nt ar y De te nt io n fo rT ub er cu lo si s Co nt ro l, ar t. V I ( p r o p o s e d 19 97 ). “ 1 3 6 “ C h a p t e r 5 c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n th e pa rt ie s, a n d m a n y sp ec if ic al ly au th or iz e or di - re ct th ei r ad mi ni st ra to rs to ac t jo in tl y fo r ce rt ai n pu rp os es , su ch as th e pr o- m u l g a t i o n o f a n y ru le s th at mi gh t b e ne ce ss ar y t o th e fu lf il lm en t o f c o m p a c t ob je ct iv es . T h e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n Me nt al He al th , fo r ex am pl e, pr ov id es in ty pi - ca l fa sh io n as fo ll ow s: (a ) E a c h pa rt y st at e sh al l ap po in t a “ c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra to r” wh o, o n be ha lf of hi s st at e, sh al l ac t as ge ne ra l co or di na to ro f ac ti vi - ti es un de r th e co mp ac t i n hi s st at e an d wh os h a l l re ce iv e co pi es o f al l re po rt s, c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , a n d ot he r d o c u m e n t s r e l a t i n g to a n y pa ti en t pr oc es se d un de r th e co mp ac t b y h i s s t a t e ei th er in th e ca pa ci ty of se nd in g or re ce iv in g st at e. T h e c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra - to r or hi s du ly de si gn at ed re pr es en ta ti ve sh al l be th e of fi ci al wi th w h o m ot he rp a r t y st at es sh al l de al in a n y ma tt er re la ti ng to th e co mp ac t o r an y pa ti en t pr oc es se d th er eu nd er . (b ) T h e c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra to rs of th e re sp ec ti ve pa rt y st at es sh al l h a v e p o w e r to pr om ul ga te re as on ab le ru le s an d re gu la ti on s to ca rr y ou t m o r e ef fe ct iv el y th e te rm s a n d pr ov is io ns of th is c o m - pa ct .’ A va ri at io n of th is ap pr oa ch ca n be fo un di n se le ct re ce nt ag re em en ts t h a t as si gn in te rn al ov er si gh t an d ad mi ni st ra ti ve au th or it y fo r co mp ac t- re la te d ma t- te rs to n e w in -s ta te en ti ti es . T h e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe r- vi si on ( I C A O S ) , fo r in st an ce , no t on ly re qu ir es t h e ap po in tm en t o f “c om pa ct ad mi ni st ra to rs ’? (a s we ll as th e es ta bl is hm en to f an in te rs ta te re gu la to ry c o m - mi ss io n) bu t al so pr ov id es fo r th e es ta bl is hm en t wi th in ea ch pa rt ic ip at in g ju ri s- di ct io n of a n e w “s ta te co un ci l” ch ar ge d wi th va ri ou s ad mi ni st ra ti ve du ti es . T h e s e i n c l u d e ov er si gh t, a d v o c a c y , a n d th e “ d e v e l o p m e n t o f po li cy c o n c e r n i n g op er at io ns an d pr oc ed ur es of th e c o m p a c t wi th in th at st at e. ’ A s a pr ac ti ca l ma tt er , th e I C A O S re qu ir em en t t h a t su ch st at e co un ci ls be es ta bl is he d ca n be fu lf il le d ei th er by cr ea ti ng a wh ol ly ne ws t a t e en ti ty or by co nf er ri ng a n e w ro le , in cl ud in g al l co mp ac t- re qu ir ed du ti es , u p o n an ex is t- in g st at e ag en cy . Ei th er wa y, th e re su lt is th e es ta bl is hm en t of an in te rn al ad mi ni st ra ti ve st ru ct ur e th at ex ce ed s in sc op e th e si mp le de si gn at io n of an in di vi du al c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra to r. 7. In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n M e n t a l He al th , ar t. X (1 97 2) . S e e al so Dr iv er L i c e n s e C o m p a c t , ar t. V I T (1 95 8) ; In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n Ju ve ni le s, ar t. X I I (1 95 5) . 8. In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r A d u l t O f f e n d e r Su pe rv is io n, ar t. I V (2 00 2) . 9. Id . S e e al so In te rs ta te C o m p a c t f o r Ju ve ni le s, ar t. L X ( p r o p o s e d 20 03 ). St ru ct ur es fo r Ad mi ni st er in g In te rs ta te Co mp ac ts 13 7 T h e ch ie f be ne fi t of th es e ap pr oa ch es to c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra ti on is th at by go in g b e y o n d so le re li an ce u p o n ex is ti ng st at e ag en ci es , th ey he lp to en - su re th at pa rt ic ip at in g st at es pa y cl os er at te nt io n to th ei ro w n co mp ac t- re la te d c o m m i t m e n t s an d du ti es . W h e t h e r li mi te d to th e ap po in tm en t of in di vi du al ad mi ni st ra to rs or e x p a n d e d to in cl ud e th e es ta bl is hm en t of n e w in -s ta te en ti - ti es , th e co mp ac t- sp ec if ic na tu re of su ch ad mi ni st ra ti ve s c h e m e s ca n se rv e to ra is e th e vi si bi li ty of th e c o m p a c t it se lf wi th in th e m e m b e r st at es . Th is , in tu rn , ca n he lp to br in g ab ou t a gr ea te r de gr ee of co mp li an ce wi th c o m p a c t ob li ga ti on s th an mi gh t ot he rw is e be ac hi ev ed in th e ab se nc e of su ch pr ov i- si on s. A po te nt ia l do wn si de i s th e di ve rs io n of re so ur ce s th at m i g h t b e n e c e s - sa ry to sa ti sf y a c o m p a c t r e q u i r e m e n t th at st at es de si gn at e sp ec if ic ad mi ni st ra to rs or es ta bl is h n e w ov er si gh t au th or it ie s. 5 3 A D M I N I S T R A T I O N B Y A S S O C I A T I O N S As so ci at io ns of va ri ou s ki nd s ca n, an d of te n do , pl ay k e y ro le s wi th re sp ec t to th e ad mi ni st ra ti on of in te rs ta te co mp ac ts . Th is is tr ue ev en th ou gh co mp ac ts ra re ly ei th er ex pr es sl y re qu ir e or sp ec if ic al ly au th or iz e th e pa rt ic i- pa ti on of as so ci at io ns in th ei r ad mi ni st ra ti on . In st ea d, su ch as so ci at io ns ty pi - ca ll y ei th er g r o w o u t of va ri ou s c o m p a c t - r e q u i r e d co ll ab or at io ns b e t w e e n de si gn at ed ad mi ni st ra to rs re pr es en ti ng th e m e m b e r st at es , or th ey a r e re - cr ui te d by co mp ac t- cr ea te d en ti ti es to as si st wi th th e im pl em en ta ti on a n d da y- to -d ay ad mi ni st ra ti on of c o m p a c t ac ti vi ti es . A n ea rl y e x a m p l e of “a dm in is tr at io n b y as so ci at io n” g r e w ou t of th e In te rs ta te Co mp ac t f o r th e Su pe rv is io n of Pa ro le es an d Pr ob at io ne rs , en ac te d in 19 37 . Th at ag re em en t ex pr es sl y au th or iz ed th e gu be rn at or ia l ap po in tm en t in ea ch m e m b e r s t a t e of “ a n of fi ce r wh o, ac ti ng jo in tl y wi th li ke of fi ce rs of ot he r co nt ra ct in g st at es , if an d w h e n ap po in te d, sh al l pr om ul ga te su ch ru le s an d re gu la ti on s as m a y be d e e m e d ne ce ss ar y to m o r e ef fe ct iv el y ca rr y ou t th e te rm s of th is co mp ac t. ”" ® No tl o n g af te r th e c o m p a c t to ok ef fe ct , th e ad mi ni st ra to rs ap po in te d pu r- su an tt o th is pr ov is io n fo un di t de si ra bl e to f o r m th ei r o w n as so ci at io n, an d in 19 45 , th ey es ta bl is he d th e Pa ro le an d Pr ob at io n C o m p a c t Ad mi ni st ra to rs A s s o c i a t i o n ( P P C A A ) t o as si st th ei r co ll ec ti ve r u l e m a k i n g ef fo rt s a n d to pr o- vi de a f o r u m fo r th e e x c h a n g e of in fo rm at io n a m o n g me mb er s. '’ Fo r m o r e 10 . In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r th e Su pe rv is io n of Pa ro le es an d Pr ob at io ne rs § 5 (1 94 6) . . 11 . T h e Pr ob at io n a n d Pa ro le C o m p a c t Ad mi ni st ra ti on s A s s o c i a t i o n ( P P C A A ) cl ai me dl e g a l au th or it y fo r it s ex is te nc e u n d e r th e c o m p a c t pr ov is io n q u o t e d a b o v e . S e e P P C A A M a n u a t , ch . 1 ( A u g u s t 2 0 0 3 ) . T h i s c l a i m is , at be st , 1 3 8 ‘ C h a p t e r 5 th an 5 0 ye ar s th er ea ft er , th e P P C A A se rv ed as th e de fa ct o ad mi ni st ra ti ve au th or it y fo r th e c o m p a c t wh il e fa ci li ta ti ng th e co op er at iv e ef fo rt s of th e du ly au th or iz ed c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra to rs . Se ve ra l ot he r co mp ac ts re qu ir in g de si gn at ed ad mi ni st ra to rs t o ac t jo in tl y in pu rs ui t of va ri ou s ob je ct iv es h a v e al so re su lt ed in th e es ta bl is hm en t of as so ci at io ns to fa ci li ta te th ei r co ll ec ti ve ef fo rt s. T h e As so ci at io n of Ju ve ni le C o m p a c t Ad mi ni st ra to rs , fo r ex am pl e, w a s es ta bl is he d sh or tl y af te r th e en - ac tm en t of th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n Ju ve ni le s an d co nt in ue s to as si st th e du ly au th or iz ed ad mi ni st ra to rs of th at ag re em en t i n th ei r co op er at iv e en de av - or s. L i k e w i s e , a n d fo r si mi la r re as on s, th e ad mi ni st ra to rs o f th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t on th e Pl ac em en t of Ch il dr en f o r m e d th ei r o w n as so ci at io n in 19 74 . S o m e o f th es e as so ci at io ns h a v e , in tu rn , en li st ed th e as si st an ce o f ot he r or ga ni za ti on s to su pp or t th ei r on go in g ac ti vi ti es , us ua ll y b y pr ov id in g se cr e- ta ri at se rv ic es to th e pr in ci pa l as so ci at io n. T h e As so ci at io n of Ad mi ni st ra to rs of th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n th e P l a c e m e n t of Ch il dr en , fo r ex am pl e, re li es u p o n th e A m e r i c a n P u b l i c H u m a n S e r v i c e s A s s o c i a t i o n ( A P H S A ) f o r se cr e- ta ri at se rv ic es ,' ? a n d si mi la r as si st an ce is pr ov id ed to th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t Co or di na to rs fo r M e n t a l He al th /M en ta l Re ta rd at io n- De ve lo pm en ta l Di sa bi li - ti es (t he ad mi ni st ra to rs of th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n M e n t a l He al th ) b y th e Na ti on al As so ci at io n of St at e M e n t a l He al th P r o g r a m Di re ct or s. In s o m e in st an ce s, as so ci at io ns th at cu rr en tl y pl ay k e y ro le s in th e ad - mi ni st ra ti on of in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s ei th er pr ed at ed or co nt ri bu te d t o the c r e - at io n of th e ag re em en ts th ey se rv e. Fo r in st an ce , th e N u r s e Li ce ns ur e C o m p a c t w a s or ig in al ly de ve lo pe d a n d p r o m o t e d b y th e Na ti on al Co un ci l of St at e B o a r d s of Nu rs in g, w h i c h n o w as si st s in ad mi ni st er in g th e ag re em en t b y pr ov id in g se cr et ar ia t se rv ic es to th e N u r s e Li ce ns ur e C o m p a c t Ad mi ni st ra - to rs . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is pr ov id ed b y th e E m e r g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t A s s i s t a n c e C o m p a c t ( E M A C ) , w h i c h de le ga te s ad mi ni st ra ti ve au th or it y in ea ch st at e to “t he le ga ll y de si gn at ed s t a t e of fi ci al w h o is as si gn ed re sp on si bi li ty fo r em er - de ba ta bl e, si nc e th e co mp ac t it se lf sp ea ks on ly to th e ad mi ni st ra to rs ’ au - th or it y to p r o m u l g a t e ru le s. T h o u g h no t pr oh ib it ed , ne it he r w a s th e es ta b- li sh me nt o f s u c h a n as so ci at io n ex pr es sl y au th or iz ed b y th e c o m p a c t , a fa ct th at te mp or ar il y ac qu ir ed re le va nc e du ri ng th e ex te rn al ly le d ef fo rt to de - ve lo p an d im pl em en t a su cc es so r ag re em en t, th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n. Se e di sc us si on , Mi ch ae l L. Bu en ge r & Ri ch - ar d L. Ma st er s, Th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t on Ad ul t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n: Us in g Ol d To ol s to So lv e N e w Pr ob le ms , 9 R o G E R WI LL IA MS U. L . Re v. 71 , 11 0 n. 10 6 (2 00 3) . 12 . A P S H A a l s o pr ov id es se cr et ar ia t se rv ic es to th e As so ci at io n o f Ad mi ni st ra - to rs o f th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t o n A d o p t i o n a n d M e d i c a l As si st an ce . St ru ct ur es f o r A d m i n i s t e r i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 1 3 9 g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t [ . ] ” ! ? A l t h o u g h a n as so ci at io n o f e m e r g e n c y m a n a g e r s al - re ad y ex is te d at th e ti me th e c o m p a c t w a s be in g de ve lo pe d b y th e So ut he rn G o v e r n o r s ’ A s s o c i a t i o n ( S G A ) , n o ro le in th e ad mi ni st ra ti on o f th e ag re e- m e n t w a s e n v i s i o n e d fo r th e N a t i o n a l E m e r g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t A s s o c i a t i o n ( N E M A ) u n t i l E M A C ' s or ig in al ge og ra ph ic sc op e w a s e x p a n d e d to pe rm it na ti on al pa rt ic ip at io n. S o o n th er ea ft er , ho we ve r, N E M A in he ri te d th e se cr e- ta ri at du ti es or ig in al ly p e r f o r m e d b y th e S G A , a n d it c o n t i n u e s to p l a y th e le ad ro le in ad mi ni st er in g E M A C to da y. E v e n th os e co mp ac ts t h a t pr ov id e f o r th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n e w in te rs ta te ag en ci es to ov er se e th ei r im pl em en ta ti on oc ca si on al ly re ly on as si st an ce f r o m ou ts id e as so ci at io ns . T h e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t f o r A d u l t O f f e n d e r Su pe rv is io n, fo r in st an ce , sp ec if ic al ly e m p o w e r e d th e co mm is si on i t cr ea te d to “c on tr ac t fo r se rv ic es of pe rs on ne l, ”" * w h i c h it di d w h e n th e c o m m i s s i o n en te re di n t o a co op er at iv e ag re em en t wi th T h e Co un ci l of St at e G o v e r n m e n t s ( C S G ) fo r in te ri m st af f su pp or t du ri ng th e st ar t- up ph as e of it s op er at io ns . Pu rs ua nt t o si mi la r au th or it y co nt ai ne d in th e Mi dw es t In te rs ta te Pa ss en ge r Ra il C o m p a c t an d th e by la ws o f th e c o m m i s s i o n it cr ea te s, C S G al so pr ov id es ad mi ni st ra - ti ve su pp or t o n an on go in g ba si s to th e M i d w e s t In te rs ta te Pa ss en ge r Ra il Co mm is si on .' ® Re li an ce o n as so ci at io ns fo r as si st an ce in ad mi ni st er in g in te rs ta te c o m - pa ct s m a k e s th e mo st s e n s e in co nn ec ti on wi th th os e ag re em en ts t h a t re qu ir e jo in t ac ti on on th e pa rt of de si gn at ed in -s ta te ad mi ni st ra to rs . In th os e in - st an ce s w h e r e co ll ec ti ve de ci si on m a k i n g is re qu ir ed on ly oc ca si on al ly an d w h e r e ot he r ad mi ni st ra ti ve d e m a n d s a r e r e l a t i v e l y li mi te d, i n f o r m a l as so ci a- ti on s of c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra to rs m a y b e su ff ic ie nt wi th li tt le or n o ou ts id e su pp or t. B y th e sa me t o k e n , th os e ag re em en ts re qu ir in g m o r e fr eq ue nt po li cy de ci si on s or th e cl os e ov er si gh t of on go in g ac ti vi ti es m a y d e m a n d m o r e f r o m th e as so ci at io ns e m p l o y e d in th ei r ad mi ni st ra ti on . In ad di ti on to pr ov id in g fo ru ms fo r me et in gs an d de li be ra ti on s b e t w e e n re pr es en ta ti ve s of th e pa rt y st at es , th ey m a y be ca ll ed u p o n to m e e t a w i d e ra ng e of ot he r ne ed s, in cl ud - in g pu bl ic ou tr ea ch , st af f re so ur ce s, an d su bs ta nt iv e ex pe rt is e. As so ci at io ns ca n pr ov id e a fl ex ib le an dr el at iv el y af fo rd ab le al te rn at iv e to th e es ta bl is hm en t of pe rm an en t ad mi ni st ra ti ve st ru ct ur es . T h e y ar e pa r- ti cu la rl y ap pe al in g w h e n al te rn at iv e m e c h a n i s m s ar e no t pr ov id ed by c o m - pa ct , bu t as si st an ce is re qu ir ed to en su re th e fu lf il lm en to f st at ed ob je ct iv es . On t h e ot he r ha nd , fo r al l th e ad va nt ag es of th is ap pr oa ch , th e pr oc ur em en t 13 . E m e r g e n c y Ma na ge me nt As si st an ce Co mp ac t, ar t. I I (1 99 6) . 14 . In te rs ta te C o m p a c t fo r A d u l t Of fe nd er Su pe rv is io n, ar t. V (2 00 2) . 15 . T h e co mm is si on i s st af fe d b y C o u n c i l of St at e G o v e r n m e n t s ’ M i d w e s t e r n Of fi ce . 1 4 u C h a p t e r 5 of pr of es si on al se cr et ar ia t se rv ic es an d ot he ra ss oc ia ti on su pp or t ca n be m o r e ex pe ns iv e th an si mp le re li an ce u p o n ex is ti ng st at e ag en ci es fo r th e ad mi ni s- tr at io n of co mp ac ts . It ca n al so be in su ff ic ie nt to m e e t th e ne ed s of m o r e c o m p l e x in te rs ta te a g r e e m e n t s . 5. 4 A D M I N I S T R A T I O N B Y I N T E R S T A T E A G E N C I E S C o m p a c t s th at go ve rn co mp le x, hi gh -v ol um e tr an sa ct io ns or th at ad dr es s o n g o i n g mu lt is ta te co nc er ns re qu ir in g th e de ve lo pm en t o f sh ar ed re gu la to ry so lu ti on s, of te n p r o v i d e fo r th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n e w in te rs ta te a g e n c i e s to ov er se e th ei r im pl em en ta ti on an d ad mi ni st ra ti on . N u m e r o u s co mp ac ts of r e - ce nt or ig in h a v e cr ea te d re gu la to ry c o m m i s s i o n s ch ar ge d wi th de ve lo pi ng a n d en fo rc in g sp ec if ic po li ci es to so lv e th e ve ry pr ob le ms th at in sp ir ed th e pa rt ie s to en ac t co mp ac ts i n th ef ir st pl ac e. In ot he r wo rd s, in st ea d of re so lv - in g th e un de rl yi ng is su es u p fr on t, su ch co mp ac ts se rv e in st ea d to es ta bl is h fr am ew or ks f o r th e su bs eq ue nt de ve lo pm en t o f t h e de si re d so lu ti on s. Th is ap pr oa ch t o in te rs ta te re gu la ti on go es we ll be yo nd t h e si mp le qu es - ti on of c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra ti on , si nc e w h a t it re al ly en ta il s is th e es ta bl is h- me nt o f n e w go ve rn in g au th or it ie s w h o s e m e m b e r s pl ay ac ti ve ro le s as po li cy m a k e r s , as w e l l as ad mi ni st ra to rs . T h e r e f o r e , c o m p a c t s th at es ta bl is h s u c h re gu la to ry en ti ti es of te n in cl ud e n u m e r o u s pr ov is io ns de fi ni ng th ei r c o m p o - Si ti on , de sc ri bi ng th ei r sp ec if ic p o w e r s an d du ti es a n d pr ov id in g th e m e a n s fo r th ei r co nt in uo us op er at io n. T h e fi rs t co mp ac t t o es ta bl is h a pe rm an en t in te rs ta te ag en cy w a s th e N e w Y o r k - N e w Je rs ey Po rt Au th or it y C o m p a c t of 19 21 , w h i c h co nf er re d un pr ec - ed en te d re gu la to ry au th or it y u p o n th e c o m m i s s i o n it es ta bl is he d. T h o u g h sp ar se in de ta il c o m p a r e d to c o m p a c t s of m o r e re ce nt vi nt ag e, th e Po rt A u - th or it y a g r e e m e n t in cl ud ed pr ov is io ns sp ec if ic al ly au th or iz in g or re qu ir in g th e ap po in tm en t o f co mm is si on er s, th e ad op ti on of by la ws , th e pr om ul ga ti on of ru le s, th e ac qu is it io n an d m a n a g e m e n t o f po rt fa ci li ti es , th e su bm is si on of an nu al r e p o r t s to th e pa rt y st at es , a n d th e ex er ci se o f va ri ou s ot he r c o m m i s - si on po we rs .' * It al so co nt ai ne d ad di ti on al te rm s pr ov id in g fo rt h e el ec ti on of of fi ce rs , th e ap po in tm en t o f st af f, an d th e ap pr op ri at io n of fu nd s to su pp or t th e op er at io ns of th e n e w co mm is si on .! ? G i v e n th e si ze an d co mp le xi ty of th e bu re au cr at ic st ru ct ur e th at ev en tu al ly re su lt ed ,' * th es e pr ov is io ns ar e no ta bl e fo r th ei r re la ti ve si mp li ci ty : 16 . N e w Yo rk -N ew J e r s e y Po rt Au th or it y Co mp ac t o f 19 21 , ar ts . I' V- VI I & X V I I (1 92 1) . 17 . Id . at ar ts . X I V - X V (1 92 1) . . 18 . T h e Po rt Au th or it y o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w Je rs ey e m p l o y s th ou sa nd s of w o r k - er s a n d op er at es o n an an nu al b u d g e t th at e x c e e d e d $4 .5 bi ll io n in 20 04 . St ru ct ur es fo r Ad mi ni st er in g In te rs ta te Co mp ac ts 14 1 e Ar ti cl e XI V. T h e po rt au th or it y sh al l el ec t f r o m it s n u m b e r a ch ai r- m a n , vi ce c h a i r m a n , a n d m a y a p p o i n t s u c h of fi ce rs a n d e m p l o y e e s as it m a y re qu ir e fo r th e pe rf or ma nc e o f i t s du ti es , a n d sh al l fi x a n d de te rm in e th ei r qu al if ic at io ns an d du ti es . ¢ Ar ti cl e XV . Un le ss an d un ti l th e re ve nu es f r o m op er at io ns co nd uc te d b y th e po rt au th or it y ar e ad eq ua te to me et a l l ex pe nd it ur es , th e le g- is la tu re s of th e t w o st at es sh al l ap pr op ri at e, in eq ua l am ou nt s, an nu - al ly , fo r th e sa la ri es , of fi ce an d ot he r ad mi ni st ra ti ve ex pe ns es , su ch s u m or s u m s as sh al l be r e c o m m e n d e d by th e po rt au th or it y an d ap pr ov ed b y th e go ve rn or s o f t h e tw o s ta te s, bu t ea ch s t a t e ob li ga te s it se lf he re un de r on ly to th e ex te nt of on e hu nd re d th ou sa nd do ll ar s in an y on e ye ar .’ An ot he r ea rl y ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t w a s th e O h i o Ri ve r Va ll ey Wa te r Sa ni ta ti on Co mp ac t, wh ic h al so es ta bl is he d an in te rs ta te co mm is si on ve st ed wi th r u l e m a k i n g au th or it y. In m a n y w a y s , th is a g r e e m e n t r e s e m b l e d th e po rt au th or it y co mp ac t i n th at th e pr ov is io ns go ve rn in g th e es ta bl is hm en t an d ge n- er al op er at io ns of th e O h i o Ri ve r Va ll ey W a t e r Sa ni ta ti on C o m m i s s i o n ( O R S A N C O ) w e r e fa ir ly si mp le .” ° Ho we ve r, wh er ea s th e fo rm er c o m p a c t ha d ci rc um sc ri be d th e br oa d ru le ma ki ng po we ro f th e Po rt Au th or it y b y re se rv in g to th e me mb er st at es t h e ri gh t to ve to th e ac ti on s of th ei r o w n co mm is si on er s, ” th e la tt er a g r e e m e n t i n c l u d e d n o si mi la r c h e c k s , th us ef fe ct iv el y g i v i n g O R S A N C O w i d e r la ti tu de to ex er ci se it s di sc re ti on ar y ru le ma ki ng po we rs . A s th e us eo f in te rs ta te co mp ac ts to ad dr es s c o m p l e x re gu la to ry ma tt er s gr ad ua ll y b e c a m e m o r e c o m m o n , th e ad mi ni st ra ti ve s c h e m e s c o n t a i n e d in su ch ag re em en ts al so co nt in ue d to ev ol ve . Ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s of m o r e re ce nt or ig in ha ve te nd ed to in cl ud e m o r e de ta il ed pr ov is io ns pr es cr ib in g th e po we rs an d du ti es of th e co mm is si on s th ey cr ea te ,” ? an d s o m e ha ve in tr o- d u c e d n e w to ol s. T h e W a t e r f r o n t C o m m i s s i o n C o m p a c t , fo r e x a m p l e , w a s th e fi rs t to em po we r a n in te rs ta te ag en cy t o le vy ta xe s. Sp ec if ic al ly , th e c o m - pa ct au th or iz ed th e n e w co mm is si on t o pa rt ia ll y fi na nc e it s o w n op er at io ns b y co ll ec ti ng a s s e s s m e n t s f r o m th e e m p l o y e r s o f va ri ou s wa te rf ro nt w o r k e r s re qu ir ed to be li ce ns ed un de r th e ag re em en t. ” 19 , N e w Yo rk -N ew J e r s e y Po rt Au th or it y C o m p a c t of 19 21 , ar ts . X I V - X V (1 92 1) . 20 . Oh io Ri ve r Va ll ey Wa te r Sa ni ta ti on Co mp ac t, ar ts . II I- V (1 94 0) . 21 . N e w Y o r k - N e w Je rs ey Po rt Au th or it y C o m p a c t of 19 21 , ar t. X V I ( 1 9 2 1) . 22 . Se e, e. g. , W a s h i n g t o n Me tr op ol it an A r e a Tr an si t Re gu la ti on C o m p a c t , Ut . II I (1 96 6) . 23 . Wa te rf ro nt C o m m i s s i o n C o m p a c t , ar t. X I I (1 95 3) . - 44 2. D y - : C h a p t e r ‘5 S o m e c o m p a c t s th at es ta bl is h in te rs ta te a g e n c i e s i n c l u d e e l a b o r a t e v o t i n g pr oc ed ur es o r de ta il ed pr ov is io ns g o v e r n i n g th e a p p o i n t m e n t of c o m m i s s i o n - er s. B y w a y of ex am pl e, o n e th at do es bo th is th e T a h o e Re gi on al Pl an ni ng C o m p a c t , u n d e r w h i c h th e st at es of Ca li fo rn ia a n d N e v a d a es ta bl is he d th e T a h o e Re gi on al Pl an ni ng A g e n c y . T h e c o m p a c t re qu ir es th e a p p o i n t m e n t of se ve n c o m m i s s i o n e r s f r o m ea ch of th e t w o pa rt y st at es , bu t in an ef fo rt to en su re ad eq ua te re pr es en ta ti on of bo th st at e a n d lo ca l in te re st s o n th e go ve rn - in g bo dy , it go es o n to re qu ir e th at th e 14 ap po in tm en ts be ma de b y a t o t a l of 13 di ff er en t au th or it ie s, in cl ud in g th e go ve rn or s of bo th st at es , c o u n t y bo ar ds in fo ur sp ec if ie d co un ti es o n bo th si de s of th e bo rd er , mu ni ci pa l au th or it ie s in t w o Ci ti es , le gi sl at iv e le ad er s in Ca li fo rn ia , a n d de si gn at ed ex ec ut iv e of fi ci al s in N e v a d a . T h e s a m e co mp ac t i s al so no te wo rt hy f o r i t s in cl us io n of l a n g u a g e sp ec i- fy in g th re e di ff er en t c o m m i s s i o n vo ti ng st an da rd s, d e p e n d i n g o n th e ty pe of ac ti on be in g co nt em pl at ed b y th e ag en cy . T h e m o s t im po rt an t ma tt er s re qu ir e af fi rm at iv e vo te s f r o m a ma jo ri ty of c o m m i s s i o n e r s wi th in ea ch st at e de le ga - ti on . Ot he rs re qu ir e a hi gh er nu mb er o f vo te s, bu t f r o m on ly o n e of th e t w o st at e de le ga ti on s, an d st il l ot he rs m a y be a p p r o v e d b y a si mp le ma jo ri ty of a l l co mm is si on er s wi th ou t r e g a r d to st at e af fi li at io n. ?5 O f c o u r s e , s i m p l e r s c h e m e s c a n al so b e f o u n d , e v e n in c o m p a c t s th at au th or iz e si gn if ic an t re gu la to ry ac ti vi ty or th at pe rm it th e pa rt ic ip at io n of n u m e r o u s pa rt y st at es . T h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r B a s i n C o m p a c t , fo r e x a m p l e , de le ga te s b r o a d re gu la to ry re sp on si bi li ty fo r th e m a n a g e m e n t a n d p r o t e c t i o n of wa te r re so ur ce s in th e D e l a w a r e Ri ve r B a s i n to an in te rs ta te c o m m i s s i o n c o m p r i s e d of ju st o n e re pr es en ta ti ve f r o m ea ch pa rt y to th e a g r e e m e n t ” a n d re qu ir es on ly th e vo te of a si mp le ma jo ri ty of al l m e m b e r s f o r th e ap pr ov al of a n y ma tt er be fo re th e co mm is si on .? ’ Si mi la rl y, th e Pe st Co nt ro l C o m p a c t , w h i c h ha s b e e n en ac te d i n 3 5 st at es ,” * is ad mi ni st er ed b y a “g ov er ni ng b o a r d ” th at in cl ud es o n e re pr es en ta ti ve f r o m ea ch pa rt y st at e a n d re qu ir es th e vo te of a si mp le ma jo ri ty of al l m e m b e r s fo r th e ap pr ov al of a n y ac ti on .” S o m e ad mi ni st ra ti ve c o m p a c t s co nt ai n de ta il ed pr ov is io ns go ve rn in g th e op er at io ns an d re so ur ce so f th e in te rs ta te ag en ci es th ey cr ea te . Fo r in st an ce , th e 24 . T a h o e R e g i o n a l P l a n n i n g C o m p a c t , a r t . IT I (a ) (1 98 1) . 25 . Id . at ar t. II I (g ). 26 . Th e p ar ti es in cl ud e t h e st at es of De la wa re , N e w Je rs ey , N e w Yo rk , an d Pe nn - sy lv an ia , as we ll as th e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt . 27 . D e l a w a r e R i v e r B a s i n C o m p a c t , ar t. 2, § 2. 5 (1 96 1) . 28 . A s o f M a r c h 2 0 0 4 . 29 . Pe st C o n t r o l C o m p a c t , ar t. IV (b ) (1 96 8) . St ru ct ur es fo r Ad mi ni st er in g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 14 3 S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r Ba si n C o m p a c t sp ec if ic al ly e m p o w e r s th e c o m m i s s i o n it es ta bl is he s to b o r r o w mo ne y, t o is su e bo nd s, t o ac ce pt gr an ts a n d co nt ri bu ti on s, an d to ac qu ir e pr op er ty b y a va ri et y of m e a n s , in cl ud in g e m i n e n t do ma in . A n d th e W a s h i n g t o n Me tr op ol it an A r e a Tr an si t Re gu la ti on C o m p a c t in cl ud es el ab or at e pr ov is io ns co ve ri ng su ch c o m m i s s i o n ac ti vi ti es as pl an ni ng , fi na ne - in g, a n d pr oc ur em en t. I t al so in cl ud es a de ta il ed se ct io n o n la bo r po li cy a n d ev en au th or iz es th e es ta bl is hm en to f a sp ec ia l po li ce fo rc e. 7 . Ot he r c o m p a c t s ar e fa r le ss sp ec if ic wi th re sp ec tt o th e ad mi ni st ra ti ve m a c h i n e r y th at m i g h t be re qu ir ed b y th e re gu la to ry ag en ci es th ey es ta bl is h. T h e Tr i- St at e Lo tt o C o m p a c t , fo r ex am pl e, pr ov id es si mp ly as fo ll ow s: 1. Co mm is si on fu nc ti on s. T h e co mm is si on ’s fu nc ti on s sh al l be pe r- f o r m e d a n d ca rr ie d ou t b y it s m e m b e r s a n d b y su ch ad vi so ry c o m - m i t t e e s or pa ne ls , or b o t h as th e c o m m i s s i o n m a y es ta bl is h, a n d b y su ch of fi ce rs , in de pe nd en t co nt ra ct or s, ag en ts , e m p l o y e e s a n d co n- su lt an ts as m a y be ap po in te d by th e co mm is si on . Al l su ch of fi ce rs , in de pe nd en tc on tr ac to rs , ag en ts , co ns ul ta nt s a n d e m p l o y e e s sh al l ho ld of fi ce at th e pl ea su re of th e c o m m i s s i o n , un le ss th e c o m m i s s i o n ot h- er wi se de ci de s, a n d th e c o m m i s s i o n sh al l pr es cr ib e th e pe rs on ’s po we rs , du ti es a n d qu al if ic at io ns a n d fi x th ei r c o m p e n s a t i o n an do t h e r te rm s of th ei r em pl oy me nt .” In te rs ta te ag en ci es ca n b e as us ef ul in ad mi ni st er in g pu re ly ad vi so ry ag re e- m e n t s as th ey ar e in i m p l e m e n t i n g ad mi ni st ra ti ve co mp ac ts . A s no te d p r e v ou sl y, s o m e su ch c o m m i s s i o n s ar e ai de d in th ei r ef fo rt s b y as so ci at io ns th a pr ov id e t h e m wi th va ri ou s fo rm s o f a s s i s t a n c e ra ng in g f r o m oc ca si on al se cr e- ta ri at se rv ic es to o n g o i n g op er at io na l su pp or t. *? Ot he rs re ly o n o n e or m o r e of th ei r m e m b e r s fo r ad mi ni st ra ti ve he lp . F o r ex am pl e, th e C o m p a c t C o u n c i es ta bl is he d pu rs ua nt t o th e Na ti on al C r i m e Pr ev en ti on a n d Pr iv ac y C o m p a c t to wh ic ht h e fe de ra l go ve rn me nt i s a pa rt y, re ce iv es di re ct st af f su pp or t ro m. th e FB I. St il l ot he r su ch ag en ci es g o it al on e an d, li ke ma ny o f t h e i r r e g u l a to ry co un te rp ar ts , ei th er pr ov id e fo r th em se lv es pu rs ua nt t o ge ne ra l gr an is o f c o m p a c t au th or it y or ar e eq ui pp ed wi th th e re so ur ce s th ey n e e d b y th e co pa ct s th at au th or iz e th ei r es ta bl is hm en t. 30 . S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r B a s i n C o m p a c t , a r t s . 13 & 1 5 (1 97 0) . v t 31 . W a s h i n g t o n Me tr op ol it an Ar ea Tr an si t R e g u l a t i o n Co mp ac t, ti t. Il l, ar ts . VI, VI I, IX , X, X I V & XV I( 19 66 ). 32 . Tr i- St at e L o t t o C o m p a c t , ar t. IT , § d (1 98 3) . _ — ; 33 . Se e, e. g. , th e M i d w e s t In te rs ta te P a s s e n g e r Ra il C o m m i s s i o n , w h i c h is s u p po rt ed by th e M i d w e s t e r n Of fi ce of T h e Co un ci l of St at e Go ve rn me nt s. 1 4 4 C h a p t e r 5 O n e e x a m p l e is pr ov id ed by th e In te rs ta te Oi ] an d G a s C o m p a c t C o m - m i s s i o n ( I O G C C ) , E s t a b l i s h e d a l m o s t 7 0 ye ar s ag o, pu rs ua nt t o th e In te rs ta te C o m p a c t to C o n s e r v e Oi l a n d Ga s, th e I O G C C w a s em po we re d t o en co ur ag e th e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f oi l a n d ga s t h r o u g h th e p r e v e n t i o n o f w a s t e a n d “t o re c- o m m e n d th e co or di na ti on of th e ex er ci se of th e po li ce p o w e r s of th e se ve ra l St at es wi th in th ei r se ve ra l ju ri sd ic ti on s to p r o m o t e th e m a x i m u m ul ti ma te re co ve ry f r o m th e pe tr ol eu m re se rv es of sa id St at es , an d to r e c o m m e n d m e a - su re s fo r th e m a x i m u m ul ti ma te re co ve ry of oi l an d ga s. ”™ 4 T h e co mp ac t m a d e no pr ov is io n fo r th e re so ur ce s ne ce ss ar y to su pp or t th e ac ti vi ti es of th e c o m m i s s i o n an d ex pr es sl y st ip ul at ed th at it s te rm s im - po se d no fi na nc ia l ob li ga ti on s u p o n it s me mb er s. *’ Mo re ov er , th e co mm is si on ’s b y l a w s la te r pr ov id ed th at th e I O G C C ’ s ex pe ns es w e r e to b e pa id “ f r o m vo lu nt ar y co nt ri bu ti on s b y th e M e m b e r St at es a n d f r o m ot he r so ur ce s of re ve nu e ap pr ov ed b y th e C o m m i s s i o n ’ ” * Ne ve rt he le ss , th e I O G C C h a s , ov er th e ye ar s, ge ne ra te d su ff ic ie nt fu nd in g f r o m it s m e m b e r s an d th ro ug h va ri ou s gr an ts a n d co nt ra ct s to su pp or ti t s ac ti vi ti es , an d it co nt in ue s to se rv e as a f o r u m fo r th e e x c h a n g e of in fo rm at io n an d as an ad vo ca te o n be ha lf of th e na ti on ’s oi l a n d ga s pr od uc in gs ta te s. O t h e r no nr eg ul at or y a n d ad vi so ry c o m p a c t s of te n in cl ud e m o r e sp ec if ic pr ov is io ns f o r th e ad mi ni st ra ti ve ag en ci es th ey cr ea te an d ty pi ca ll y re ly he av il y u p o n re qu ir ed co nt ri bu ti on s f r o m pa rt ic ip at in g st at es fo r th e su pp or t of c o m - mi ss io n ac ti vi ti es . F o r ex am pl e, th e no nr eg ul at or y N e w E n g l a n d Hi gh er E d u - ca ti on C o m p a c t , o n e of fo ur re gi on al ag re em en ts th at au th or iz e in te rs ta te ag en ci es to ad mi ni st er va ri ou s pr og ra ms f o r th e ad va nc em en t o f hi gh er ed u- ca ti on ,* ’ re qu ir es pa rt y st at es to pa y m e m b e r s h i p du es in su pp or t of th e c o m - pa ct c o m m i s s i o n (t he N e w E n g l a n d B o a r d of Hi gh er Ed uc at io n) . It e v e n sp ec if ie s th e fo rm ul a to be us ed in de te rm in in g th e ap pr op ri at e a m o u n t s to be pa id b y ea ch s t a t e : , E a c h st at e ag re es th at , w h e n au th or iz ed by t h e le gi sl at ur e pu rs ua nt t o th e co ns ti tu ti on al pr oc es se s, it wi ll f r o m ti me to ti me m a k e av ai la bl e to th e bo ar d su ch fu nd s as m a y be re qu ir ed fo r th e ex pe ns es of th e 34 . In te rs ta te C o m p a c t to C o n s e r v e Oi l a n d Ga s, ar t. V 1 (1 96 7) . 35 . Id , at ar t. VI I. 36 . In te rs ta te Oi l a n d G a s C o m m i s s i o n , B y l a w s , ar t. VI I (2 00 4) , av ai la bl e at ht tp :/ /w ww .i og cc .o kl ao sf .s ta te .o k. us /A BO UT IO I H T M # B Y L A W S . 37 . T h e ot he r t h r e e ar e th e W e s t e r n R e g i o n a l H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n C o m p a c t ( 1 9 5 3 ) , th e S o u t h e r n R e g i o n a l E d u c a t i o n C o m p a c t (1 94 8) , a n d th e M i d w e s t e r n H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n C o m p a c t (1 99 1) . —Structu re s f o r Ad mi ni st er in g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 1 4 5 bo ar d as au th or iz ed un de r th e te rm s of th is co mp ac t. T h e c o n t ti on of ea ch st at e fo r th is pu rp os e sh al l be in th e pr op or ti on th a i ul at io n be ar s to th e to ta l c o m b i n e d po pu la ti on of th e st at es w h o e r ar ti es he re to as s h o w n f r o m ti me to ti me b y th e m o s t re ce nt a fi ci al pu bl is he d re po rt of th e B u r e a u of th e Ce ns us or at e Un it ed St at es , un le ss th e bo ar d sh al l ad op t an ot he r ba si s in m a in g i o m m e n d a t i o n fo r ap pr op ri at io n to th e co mp ac ti ng st at es . In co nt ra st , co mp ac ts th at an ti ci pa te th e av ai la bi li ty of ot he r re ve nu e st re am s of te n re ly o n th os e so ur ce s to fu nd th e op er at io ns of th e c o m m i s s i o n s cr ea te . Th is is tr ue e v e n wi th re sp ec t to c o m m i s s i o n s th at ex er ci se on ly Ti na te d re gu la to ry au th or it y wh il e ad mi ni st er in g ac ti vi ns ’ th at in cl ud e m o r e su bs ta nt ia l op er at io ns . Th us , fo r in st an ce , th e Hi st or ic ha tt a p o o r 2 C o m pa ct be tw ee n th e st at es of A l a b a m a an d Ge or gi a e m p o w e r e c e Pi st on s Ch at ta ho oc he e C o m m i s s i o n to ac ce pt go ve rn me nt al ap pr op ri at io n p o t o i e no t re qu ir e th e pa rt y st at es to m a k e th em . In st ea d, an ti ci pa ti ng ; na tS uf fi ci en t re ve nu es mi gh t b e de ri ve d th ro ug h ot he r so ur ce s, su ch as a d i s io ns , ~ sp ec ti on fe es , gi ft s, do na ti on s, gr an ts , be qu es ts [a nd ] lo an s, € c o m pa ct gr an te d th e co mm is si on br oa d au th or it y to ac qu ir e an d ma na ge va ri os a s e an d sp ec if ic al ly e m p o w e r e d it to b o r r o w fu nd s, is su e b o n 8 a c e mt 2 S di sp os e of pr op er ty , an d pr om ul ga te ru le s go ve rn in g th e op er a m y to ci li ti es ,a l l of w h i c h co ul d po te nt ia ll y ge ne ra te th e re ve nu es n c o m m i s s i o n ' s ad mi ni st ra ti ve ef fo rt s. e r e ga rd le ss of th ei r pr ec is e fo rm , in te rs ta te ag en ci es ca n be e x o n ef fe ct iv e as to ol s fo r th e im pl em en ta ti on of in te rs ta te c o m p a c t s . y p e se rv in g as fo ru ms fo r th e ex ch an ge of in fo rm at io n an d id ea s w t o s pa rt ie s, as ad vo ca te s fo r th e im pl em en ta ti on of be st pr ac ti ce s an e ‘ a e so lu ti on s, as ad mi ni st ra to rs of co op er at iv e ve nt ur es an d ot he r o n g o i n g a c t ti es , or as go ve rn in g au th or it ie s wi th si gn if ic an t po li cy -m ak in g an e: r s u e to ry po we rs , c o m p a c t ag en ci es ar e un iq ue ly we ll su it es to & T S a t e in te rs ta te ob je ct iv es . Th is is du e in pa rt to th e sp ec ia l le ga ’ s e o n e a l co mp ac ts , re la ti ve to ot he r st at e st at ut es , bu t th er e ar e ot he r, m P as we ll . e y n o t h i n g el se , th e es ta bl is hm en t of an in te rs ta te ag en cy ca ni nc re as e0 ch an ce s of ac om pa ct ’s su cc es s si mp ly by en su ri ng th at s o m e o n e e e o d to sh ip fo r it s im pl em en ta ti on . Wi th ou t an ov er si gh t en ti ty of So 38 . N e w E n g l a n d H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n C o m p a c t , ar t. V I (1 95 4) . 39 . Hi st or ic C h a t t a h o o c h e e C o m p a c t , ar t. V I I (1 97 8) . 40 , Jd . at ar t. V I L . 1 4 6 C h a p t e r 5 co or di na te th e ef fo rt s of th e pa rt ie s, c o m p a c t s th at re ly so le ly o n ex is ti ng st at e ag en ci es or de si gn at ed of fi ci al s m a y la ng ui sh th ro ug h ne gl ec t or be - ca us e th ey la ck su ff ic ie nt ad mi ni st ra ti ve m a c h i n e r y to ef fe ct ua te th ei r pu r- po se s. In te rs ta te ag en ci es , on th e ot he r ha nd , c a n he lp th e pa rt ie s to m o r e ef fe ct iv el y fo cu s th ei r ef fo rt s an d ma rs ha l th ei r re so ur ce s in pu rs ui t of c o m - pa ct ob je ct iv es . T h e y al so pr ov id e a us ef ul “ h o m e ” fo r co mp ac t- re la te d i s - su es a n d ca n a ss is t i n ra is in g th e vi si bi li ty of th e un de rl yi ng co nc em s t h e y ar e me an t t o ad dr es s. T h e ag en cy ap pr oa ch to c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra ti on is as fl ex ib le as th e c o m - pa ct m e c h a n i s m it se lf . Th is , to o, is a si gn if ic an t ad va nt ag e, si nc e th e ag en cy m o d e l ca n b e ta il or ed to m e e t th e sp ec if ic ne ed s of vi rt ua ll y an y ag re em en t. C o m p a c t ag en ci es ne ed no t re qu ir e th e es ta bl is hm en t o f ex te ns iv e bu re au cr at ic su pp or t st ru ct ur es (a lt ho ug h s o m e do , a n d th e co st ca n b e hi gh ). M a n y t h a t p e r f o r m no nr eg ul at or y du ti es or th at se rv e pr im ar il y in an ad vi so ry ca pa ci ty fu nc ti on we ll wi th on ly li mi te d st af f re so ur ce s an d op er at io na l su pp or t. Ne ve rt he le ss , th e ag en cy m o d e l ar gu ab ly be st se rv es th os e c o m p a c t s th at ad dr es s c o m p l e x re gu la to ry ma tt er s or th at en ta il si gn if ic an t op er at io ns re - qu ir in g co nt in uo us ov er si gh t. A s mu lt ij ur is di ct io na l go ve rn in g au th or it ie s of te n ch ar ge d wi th si gn if ic an t po li cy -m ak in g po we rs , c o m p a c t ag en ci es ar e fa r be tt er po si ti on ed th an si ng le -s ta te ag en ci es ac ti ng in de pe nd en tl y, o r lo os el y or ga ni ze d as so ci at io ns of c o m p a c t ad mi ni st ra to rs to ov er se e th e im pl em en ta - ti on a n d ad mi ni st ra ti on of in te rs ta te ag re em en ts . B u t th e ve ry at tr ib ut es th at re nd er in te rs ta te ag en ci es so us ef ul in th e ad mi ni st ra ti on of co mp ac ts a r e al so , oc ca si on al ly , a so ur ce of co nc er n a m o n g l a w m a k e r s or ot he rs w h o ar e no t fa mi li ar wi th th e c o m p a c t me ch an is m i t s e l f or wh o, f o r va ri ou s re as on s, qu es ti on th e de le ga ti on of st at e au th or it y to su ch en ti ti es . S o m e fe ar th e lo ss of st at e so ve re ig nt y in he re nt in an y de le ga ti on of p o w e r to an a g e n c y th at th e de le ga ti ng st at e do es no t un il at er al ly co nt ro l. Ot he rs qu es ti on wh et he r su ch de le ga ti on s ar e ev en pe rm is si bl e on co ns ti tu - ti on al gr ou nd s, a co nc er n th at go es di re ct ly to th e le ga l st at us of c o m p a c t ag en ci es . T h e st at us qu es ti on is un de rs ta nd ab le in li gh t of th e re la ti ve ly un us ua l na tu re of co mp ac t en ti ti es . A s jo in t in st ru me nt al it ie s of al l st at es th at pa rt ic i- pa te in th ei r cr ea ti on , in te rs ta te ag en ci es ar e eq ua ll y re sp on si bl e to ea ch , t h o u g h su bj ec t on ly to th e co ll ec ti ve go ve rn an ce o f t h e i r pr in ci pa ls in ac co r- d a n c e wi th th e te rm s of th ei r c o m p a c t ch ar te rs . A n d li ke th e st at ut es th at a u t h o r i z e th ei r es ta bl is hm en t, a n y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ru le s d u l y p r o m u l g a t e d b y c o m p a c t ag en ci es en jo y a sp ec ia l, pr es um pt iv el y su pe ri or st at us re la ti ve to ot he r st at e la ws . De sp it e th es e un iq ue ch ar ac te ri st ic s, ho we ve r, th e st at us of in te rs ta te co mm is si on s a s le ga ll y pe rm is si bl e en ti ti es is n o w we ll un de rs to od . M o r e o v e r , th e U . S . S u p r e m e Co ur t h a s h e l d th at a st at e le gi sl at ur e’ s ab il it y to St ru ct ur es f o r A d m i n i s t e r i n g In te rs ta te C o m p a c t s 1 4 7 de le ga te re gu la to ry au th or it y to an ad mi ni st ra ti ve a g e n c y is “o ne o f th e ax i- o m s of m o d e r n g o v e r n m e n t ” a n d t h a t t h i s ab il it y e x t e n d s as w e l l to th e cr e- at io n of in te rs ta te co mm is si on s by co mp ac t. ’ Ge ne ra ll y, th er ef or e, ne it he r th e es ta bl is hm en t of su ch en ti ti es no r th ei r ex er ci se of re gu la to ry po we ri s le ga ll y pr ob le ma ti c wi th re sp ec t to co ns ti tu ti on al pr oh ib it io ns ag ai ns t th e de le ga ti on of st at e au th or it y. As f o r co nc er ns r e l a t e d to th e lo ss o f in di vi du al ! st at e so ve re ig nt y, th er e is n o qu es ti on th at th e pa rt ie s to in te rs ta te co mp ac ts ne ce ss ar il y gi ve u p th e ri gh t to un il at er al ly co nt ro l th e jo in t ag en ci es th ey cr ea te . B u t w h e n m e a - su re d ag ai ns t th e na tu re of co ng re ss io na l in te rv en ti on an d the l o s s of s t a t e au th or it y th at ca n re su lt f r o m fe de ra l pr ee mp ti on of a pa rt ic ul ar fi el d, th e le gi sl at iv e a n d re gu la to ry co nt ro l th at st at es jo in tl y re ta in un de r in te rs ta te co mp ac ts i s us ua ll y pr ef er re d b y st at es . V i e w e d th ro ug ht hi s le ns , t h e de ci si on to e m p o w e r an in te rs ta te a g e n c y is m o r e li ke ly to b e se en as a w e l c o m e pr ot ec ti on of “c ol le ct iv e st at e so ve re ig nt y” th an it is to be re si st ed as an un ac ce pt ab le sa cr if ic e of in di vi du al st at e au th or it y. O f co ur se , th e pa rt ie s to a n in te rs ta te c o m p a c t u l t i m a t e l y re ta in th e ab il - it y to te rm in at e th e ag re em en t al to ge th er , a n d th ey ca n, if th ey so de si re , bu il d ot he r me ch an is ms i n t o th e st at ut e to li mi t th e di sc re ti on de le ga te d to an in te rs ta te ag en cy or to pr ot ec t th e pr er og at iv es of in di vi du al st at es . Fo r ex - am pl e, s o m e co mp ac ts re se rv e to th ei r pa rt ie s sp ec if ie d ve to p o w e r s ov er th e ac ti on s of th e ag en ci es th ey cr ea te ,* ? wh il e ot he rs in cl ud e me ch an is ms a l l o w - in g th ei r me mb er st o jo in tl y re je ct ,* ? or to in di vi du al ly “o pt ou t” of th e en - fo rc em en to f , “ in di vi du al ru le s pr om ul ga te d b y in te rs ta te co mm is si on s. S u c h pr ov is io ns al so se rv e to fu rt he r il lu st ra te th e w i d e va ri et y o f w a y s in w h i c h in te rs ta te ag en ci es ca n be st ru ct ur ed an d em po we re d t o en su re th e su cc es sf ul ad mi ni st ra ti on of th e c o m p a c t s un de r w h i c h th ey ar e cr ea te d. 41 . W e s t Vi rg in ia ex re l. D y e r v. Si ms , 3 4 1 U. S. 2 2 (1 95 1) . 42 . Se e, e. g. , N e w Y o r k ~ N e w Je rs ey Po rt Au th or it y C o m p a c t of 19 21 , ar t. X V I (1 92 1) . 43 . Se e, e. g. , In te rs ta te C o m p a c t f o r A d u l t O f f e n d e r Su pe rv is io n, ar t. V I (2 00 2) . 44 . Se e, e. g. , In te rs ta te In su ra nc e Re ce iv er sh ip C o m p a c t , ar t. V I I (1 99 6) . COUNCIL OF STATE GOVERNMENTS—NATIONAL CENTER FOR INTERSTATE COMPACTS Interstate Compacts vs. Uniform Laws Interstate Compacts Interstate compacts are formal agreements between states that have the characteristics of both statutory law and contractual agreements. They are enacted by state legislatures adopting reciprocal laws that substantively mirror one another. Compacts are considered contracts because of the manner in which they are enacted. There is an offer (the presentation of a reciprocal law to state legislatures), acceptance (the actual enactmentof the law) and consideration (the settlement of a dispute or creation of a regulatory scheme). Since a state is forbidden by the Constitution to impair the obligation of contracts, it cannot unilaterally renounce an interstate compact except as agreed bythe parties. Consequently, the interstate compactis the instrumentbest suited for the establishment of permanentarrangements amongthestates. The interstate compactis effective in the formulation of arrangements where a high degree ofstability is desired. Interstate compacts are not uniform laws. Unlike laws such as the Uniform Commercial Code, compacts are not subject to unilateral amendment. Nor are interstate compacts mere administrative agreements. As contracts, compacts constitute solemn treaties between the states, which are acting as sovereigns within a constituent union when adopting a compact. Therefore, compacts have standing as both binding state law and a contract between the memberstates such that no one state can unilaterally act in conflict with the terms of the compact. Anystate law in contradiction or conflict with the compact is unconstitutional, absent the reserve of powerto the party states. The terms of the compact take precedence over state law even to the extent that a compact can trumpa state constitutional provision. In effect, by entering a compact, the party states have contractually agreed that the terms and conditions of the compact supercede state considerations to the extent authorized by the compactrelative to any conflicting laws or principles. Advantagesof Interstate Compacts e Interstate compacts provide an effective solution that respects fundamental principles of federalism, recognizing the supremacy of the federal government regarding national issues while allowing the states to take appropriate collective action in addressing suprastate problems. Compacts enable the states - in their sovereign capacity — to act jointly and collectively, generally outside the confines of the federal legislative or regulatory process while concomitantly respecting the view of Congress on the appropriateness of joint action. The interstate compacts can effectively preempt federal interference into matters that are traditionally within the purview of the states and yet which have regional or national implications. COUNCIL OF STATE GOVERNMENTS—NATIONAL CENTER FOR INTERSTATE COMPACTS Unlike federal actions that impose unilateral, rigid mandates, compacts afford states the opportunity to develop dynamic, self-regulatory systems over which the party states can maintain control through a coordinated legislative and administrative process. The very nature of an interstate compact makesit an ideal tool to meet the need of cooperative state action in developing and enforcing standards upon the party states. Compacts also enable the states to develop adaptive structures that can evolve to meet new and increased challenges that naturally arise over time. In short, through the compact device, states acting jointly can control not only the solution to a problem but also shape the future agenda as the problem changes. The closer the coordination between the various elements of the cooperative undertaking, the more necessary is the use of the compact approach. Interstate compacts can be structured to respect the balance of power amongfederal, state, and local interests. While many regulatory compacts provide power to regulate cross-border problems, they can be structured to do so in a mannerthat preserves national interests. To a large extent, the Compact Clause requiring congressional consent to compacts that impact federal interests ensures that federal concerns are at the forefront of compact construction while simultaneously enabling states to maintain functional and regulatory control over an issue. Approval by Congress provides states with the authority to regulate in an area which would otherwise be unavailable to the state. Interstate compacts can broaden a state’s parochial focus by allowing states to act collectively and jointly to address regional and national problems. Making decisions based on the state line boundaries can be problematic because boundaries do not necessarily reflect natural or logical divisions to supra-state problems. State legislatures and state regulators generally do not make decisions that are likely to restrict their own citizens’ activities based on the need to protect a neighboring state’s interests. Consequently, an interstate compact provides the opportunity to make decisions across state boundaries without resorting to federalization, which has limitations in resolving cross-boundary problems. Interstate compacts provide party states with a predictable, stable and enforceable instrument of policy control. The contractual nature of compacts ensures their enforceability on the party states. The fact that compacts cannot be unilaterally amendedensuresthat party states will have predictable and stable policy platform for resolving problems. By entering into an interstate compact, each party state acquires the legal right to require the other states to perform under the terms and conditions of the compact. Disadvantages of interstate compacts The principle disadvantage of compacts may be characterized as twofold: The long negotiations and arduous course they must run before becoming effective; and COUNCIL OF STATE GOVERNMENTS—NATIONAL CENTER FOR INTERSTATE COMPACTS e The ceding oftraditional state sovereignty, particularly as required by several modern administrative compacts. The very purpose of an interstate compact is to provide for the collective allocation of governing authority between party states, which does not allow much room for individualism. The requirement of substantive “sameness” prevents party states from passing dissimilar enactments notwithstanding, perhaps, pressing state differences with respect to particular matters within the compact. To the extent that a compact is used as a governing tool, they require, even in the boundary compact context, that party states cede someportion of their sovereignty. Uniform Laws The concept ofuniformity is most familiar in connection with the work of the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws. That organization has accomplished much by preparing uniform laws and offering them for consideration by the states. A number of these laws, especially in the commercial field, have achieved wide adoption over a period of years. However, uniformity attained in this way is subject to dissipation from two directions: 1. Uniformity can be impaired by the unilateral action of particular state legislatures in amending a uniform statute so that it is no longer uniform or in introducing non- uniform provisions whenthe act is being initially considered by the legislature. 2. Differing interpretations of provisions ofuniform acts can impair the degree of uniformity actually achieved. The ordinary law,for all its identity in language with the laws of other states, is only a simple statute organically unconnected with the statutes of other jurisdictions. Accordingly, the courts in different states can and sometimesdo interpret identical provisions differently. Since the highest court of eachstate is the final authority on the meaningofthestatutesof its own state, there is no satisfactory way to achieve a reconciliation of divergentinterpretations. If uniform provisions are embodied in a compact, no state could subsequently destroy this uniformity by unilateral amendmentof its own statute except to the extent that such variation might be permitted by specific provision of the compact. To somedegree, this limitation ofa state's freedom to alter its law unilaterally may raise questions. However, if the virtue of a uniform measureis to be foundin the identity of the law from state to state, the superior stability produced by a compact should be considered. PROOF OF SERVICE I declare that Iam employed with the law firm of Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP, whose addressis 3833 18" Street, San Francisco, California 94114. I am not a party to the within cause, and I am over the age of eighteen years. I further declare that on January 22, 2014, I served a copyof: PLAINTIFFS/APPELLANTS’ SECOND MOTION FOR JUDICIAL NOTICE BY PERSONAL SERVICE[CodeCiv. Proc sec. 1011] by placing a true copy thereof enclosed in a sealed envelope addressed as follows for collection and delivery at the mailroom of Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP, causing personal delivery of the document(s)listed aboveto the person(s)at the address(es) set forth below through registered process server Wheels of Justice whose business addressis located at 657 Mission Street, #502, San Francisco, California 94105. I am readily familiar with Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP’s practice for the collection and processing of documents for hand delivery and knowthat in the ordinary course of Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP’s business practice the document(s) described above will be taken from Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP’s mailroom and hand delivered through registered process server Wheels of Justice to the document’s addressee (or left with an employee or person in charge ofthe addressee’s office) on the same date thatit is placed at Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP’s mailroom. First District Court ofAppeal Division Four 350 McAllister Street San Francisco, California 94102 San Francisco Superior Court Honorable Richard A. Kramer Department 304 400 McAllister Street San Francisco, California 94102-4514 Lucy F. Wang Deputy Attorney General 455 Golden Gate Avenue,Suite 11000 San Francisco, California 94102-7004 Counselfor Defendant and Respondent Franchise Tax Board BY OVERNIGHT DELIVERY[Code Civ. Proc sec. 1013(d)] by placing a true copy thereof enclosed in a sealed envelope with delivery fees provided for, addressed as follows, for collection by UPS,at 3833 18" Street, San Francisco, California 94114 in accordance with Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP’s ordinary business practices. J am readily familiar with Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP’s practice for collection and processing of correspondence for overnight delivery and know thatin the ordinary course of Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP’s business practice the document(s) described above will be deposited in a box orotherfacility regularly maintained by UPSordelivered to an authorized courier or driver authorized by UPSto receive documents on the same date that it (they) is are placed at Silverstein & Pomerantz LLP for collection. W. Dean Freeman Supervising Deputy Attorney General 455 Golden Gate Avenue, Suite 11000 San Francisco, California 94102-7004 Counselfor Defendant andRespondent Franchise Tax Board Miriam Hiser Law Offices of Miriam Hiser 550 MontgomeryStreet, Suite 650 San Francisco, CA 94111 CounselforAmici Curiae Interstate Commission forJuveniles & Association ofCompactAdministrators ofthe Interstate Compact on the Placement ofChildren Richard L. Masters Masters, Mullins & Arrington 1012 South Fourth Street Louisville, KY 40203 CounselforAmici Curiae Interstate Commission forJuveniles & Association ofCompactAdministrators ofthe Interstate Compact on the Placement ofChildren Joe Huddleston Shirley Sicilian Sheldon H. Laskin 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 425 Washington, D.C. 20001-1538 Amicus Curiae Multistate Tax Commission Wm. Gregory Turner Senior Tax Counsel 1415 L Street, Suite 1200 Sacramento, California 95814 Amicus Council On State Taxation (COST) Jeffrey B. Litwak 1608 NE Knott Street Portland, Oregon 97212 Amicus Curiae Jeffrey B. Litwak Lawrence G. Wasden Attorney General, State of Idaho State of Idaho Office of the Attorney General P.O. Box 83720 Boise, Idaho 83720-0010 Amicus Curiae State ofIdaho Cory Fong, Tax Commissioner Office of State Tax Commissioner State of North Dakota 600 E. Boulevard Avenue, Department 127 Bismarck, North Dakota 58505-0599 Amicus Curiae State ofNorth Dakota R. Bruce Johnson Commission Chair Utah State Tax Commission 210 North 1950 West Salt Lake City, Utah 84134 Amicus Curiae State of Utah Ellen F. Rosenblum Attorney General, State of Oregon Department of Justice Justice Building 1162 Court Street NE Salem, Oregon 97301-4096 Amicus Curiae State ofOregon Rance L. Croft Assistant Solicitor General Office of the Attorney General 300 W. 15th Street Austin, Texas 78701 CounselforAmici Curiae States of Texas, Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, District ofColumbia, Hawaii, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Mexico, South Dakota, Utah, and Washington Jeffrey Margolis Tax Counsel IV California Franchise Tax Board Sacramento, California 95827 Defendant and Respondent I declare under penalty of perjury under the lawsof the State of California that the foregoing is true and correct. Executed at San Francisco, California, this 22nd day of January, 2014. Elsa O. Valmidiano fo SSY (typed) (signature)