[24] MacKINNON, Circuit Judge (dissenting).

The issue for determination is whether regulations of the Department of State, under which the Secretary of State revoked the passport of Philip Agee, are unconstitutional on their face and as applied. Agee, a former agent of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), concedes in this case that his international travel activities "have caused serious damage to the national security and foreign policy of the United States" and that his "stated intention to continue such activities threatens additional damage of the same kind." (App. 9, 29) The District Court held that while such grounds may be adequate to support a passport revocation during an emergency, they are not adequate in "peace-time." (App. 51) This overlooks the significance of the enactment by Congress in 1978 which extended the requirement for passports in emergencies into the peace-time era. It also does not give adequate recognition to the powers of the Executive under the Hostage Act and implicit adoption by Congress in 1978 of prior administrative practice in passport revocations. For this and for other reasons which are demonstrated hereafter, the Secretary of State on the record in this declaratory judgment action is authorized to revoke Agee's passport. It is an unreasonable interpretation of congressional intent to hold that a passport cannot be revoked for one with Agee's propensities to cause serious damage to this nation. No United States Congress would ever intend to require a President to issue a passport to one with Agree's record and intentions. If the decision of the District Court is not to be reversed the least that should be done would be to vacate and remand for the hearings that were never held.

I. [26] FACTS

A. Agee's Background — Past Activities.

Agee is an American citizen who is presently residing in Hamburg, West Germany after having previously been deported from Great Britain, (danger to national security), France, Germany and Holland (endanger Holland). (App. 92); P. Agee, L. Wolf, Dirty Work: CIA in Western Europe 286-300 (1978).

When Agee first entered on duty with the CIA as an agent on July 22, 1957, he executed a formal "Secrecy Agreement" with the Agency which included the following undertaking:

[I]n consideration of my employment by CIA I undertake not to publish or to participate in the publication of any information or material relating to the Agency, its activities or intelligence activities generally, either during or after the term of my employment by the Agency without specific prior approval by the Agency.

(App. 65)

Thereafter, in reliance on Agee's execution of the Secrecy Agreement, the CIA assigned him to highly confidential duties in a trust relationship with the agency. He was given training in CIA clandestine operations, and allowed to enter CIA headquarters where he became personally acquainted with numerous CIA employees who had undercover assignments, many of whom are still active. Agee also was assigned to serve in undercover assignments abroad. (App. 56-57) He worked in numerous positions of trust in the CIA including one with the Directorate of Operations, and he was permitted to acquire a detailed knowledge of the secret methodology used by the agency to provide cover for its undercover employees and cooperating sources. (App. 57)

As a consequence of personal problems that threatened to expose his CIA affiliation in an undercover position, Agee resigned in November of 1968. (App. 57) In November, 1971 the CIA received its first indication that Agee had embarked on a program to expose CIA intelligence activities when a publication in Uruguay published a letter, purportedly written by Mr. Agee, in which the CIA was accused of interference in upcoming Uruguayan elections.

Subsequently, on October 3, 1974 Agee issued a press release in London as follows:

Today, I announced a new campaign to fight the United States CIA wherever it is operating. This campaign will have two main functions: First, to expose CIA officers and agents and to take the measures necessary to drive them out of the countries where they are operating; secondly, to seek within the United States to have the CIA abolished.

This effort to identify CIA people in foreign countries has been going on for some time . . .. (Today's) list was compiled by a small group of Mexican comrades whom I trained to follow the comings and goings of CIA people before I left Mexico City.

Similar lists of CIA people in other countries are already being compiled and will be announced when appropriate. We invite participation in this campaign from all those who strive for social justice and national dignity.

(App. 58)

Following that announcement Agee continued to engage in a world-wide program designed to expose CIA activities and personnel. In doing so he resorted to publications, personal appearances and press conferences throughout the world, including London, Sweden, Denmark, Jamaica, and Cuba. He was quoted or interviewed on the same subject in newspapers or by the television media in Portugal (concerning CIA agents in Angola), Spain, Holland, Rome (concerning CIA activities in Switzerland), Bolivia, Australia and New Zealand. (App. 58-61) At the time of these disclosures Agee allegedly admitted some of them and some were credited to him by the publishers or writers without his confirmation. When the CIA's Athens Chief, Richard Welch, was murdered by Greek Terrorists in December, 1975 some CIA officials reportedly blamed Agee's activities in part. (App. 92)

In 1978, Agee participated in the publication of a book entitled, Dirty Work: CIA in Western Europe (1978). In the book's introduction Agee stated he intended, by participating in the publication, to create opposition to the CIA by publishing the identities of CIA employees. The book claims reliance on a number of "official publications" but also asserts "use of other, less public information from within several American embassies, and other sources as noted . . ." Id. at 319. The book contains an Appendix of 415 pages that purports to list and describe a large number of undercover CIA employees. (App. 61, 66-75) There is no record that Agee ever made a request to be released from the terms of his Secrecy Agreement. (App. 56) His right to write is recognized, but not his right to violate his Secrecy Agreement and disclose information vital to the national security of the United States.

B. The Iranian Crisis.

We may take judicial notice of the significant facts of the United States' involvement in the present Iranian Crisis. Fed.R.Evid. 201(b), (c), (f). Early in 1979 the Shah of Iran was forced to leave his country. The country soon passed into the hands of a self-styled Islamic Republic, which termed itself "Revolutionary." The person who became the principal figure in the government of the country was a prominent Moslem cleric, and there were a great many quick executions of persons who previously held top positions in the Shah's government. As frequently happens with revolutions, the government that replaced the Shah did not quickly reach maturity and dangerous unrest continues throughout the country, and, principally in the capital city, Tehran.

On November 4, 1979, a severe international crisis developed between the United States and a faction of militant insurgents in Iran who invaded the United States Embassy in Tehran, occupied the entire compound by force, seized over 50 United States citizens who were duly accredited as members of the official United States diplomatic mission to Iran, and confined them in the Embassy. These Iranian terrorists have continued to hold the members of the Embassy staff as hostages to their unlawful demand that the United States, with whom Iran has no extradition treaty, extradite Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Ex-Shah of Iran. The Ex-Shah, suffering from cancer and a bile duct obstruction had been temporarily admitted to the United States for a short period in November, 1979 for emergency surgery. The Ex-Shah has long since departed from the United States, and the United States has never acceded to the demand for his extradition to Iran. Nevertheless, the militant insurgents, voicing other nebulous complaints, continue to occupy the United States Embassy and by force and violence to hold captive therein the official staff members of the United States Diplomatic Mission.

The United States took the matter to the International Court of Justice at the Hague where the above facts as alleged by the United States were not contradicted by Iran. That Court on December 15, 1979 was unanimous in issuing an Order which in significant part states:

However important and however connected with the present case, the inequities attributed to the United States Government by the Government of Iran in that letter may appear to be to the latter Government, the seizure of the United States Embassy and consulates and the detention of internationally protected persons as hostages cannot, in the view of the court, be regarded as something "secondary" or "marginal," having regard to the importance of the legal principles involved. * * *

There is no more fundamental prerequisite for the conduct of relations between states than the inviolability of diplomatic envoys and embassies, so that throughout history nations of all creeds and cultures have observed reciprocal obligations for that purpose.

United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, Provisional Measures, Order of 15 December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, pp. 15, 19. On April 4, 1980, the President of the United States announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Iran because of Iran's refusal to release the hostages. On May 24, 1980 the World Court announced its unanimous decision declaring Iran to be in violation of international law in holding the hostages.

C. Agee's Relation to the Hostage Crisis in Iran.

With this situation existing on December 17, 1979 a newspaper article in the New York Post reported that Agee had been invited to travel to Iran in order to participate in a "Tribunal" to help judge the American hostages then being held in Tehran under the conditions described above. (App. 37) It is incorrect to state that the Secretary did not mention the Iranian crisis as the record refers to the "damage . . found in the recent attacks on the United States [Embassy] . . . in Iran . . ." (App. 36) (Emphasis added).

Judicial notice is also taken of the generally known fact that following the overthrow of the Shah those who succeeded to power in Iran conducted so-called revolutionary "Tribunals" which involved many mass trials that almost invariably led to imposition of the death sentence and prompt execution. Fed.R.Evid. 201(b), (c), (f). While there was no assurance that such would be the result of the Iranian tribunal to which Mr. Agee was invited to attend, he made no prompt public denial of the invitation nor any statement with respect thereto. The Iranian government also professed an inability to guarantee the security of the hostages. This created the gravest concern in the United States for the safety of its citizens who comprised the Embassy staff members being held hostage. (App. 37)

In addition to the situation in Iran, recent attacks on United States embassies also occurred in other Islamic countries, Libya and Pakistan (App. 36), and the United States Ambassador to Columbia was held hostage during the same period by a band of militants in Bogota. The State Department expressed its judgment that the international situation was such that it was likely that other "United States diplomatic facilities, including embassies and consulates, would be taken over by force and that United States diplomats and other nationals would be physically harmed." (App. 37)

Given Agee's prior disclosures of United States' intelligence activities throughout the world, and some of the results that were outlined and detailed in the uncontroverted Government affidavit (App. 36-37), the State Department concluded that "Agee's activities have caused and are likely to cause serious damage to the national security and foreign policy of the United States." (App. 37-38) The United States allows its citizens more freedom of expression than any nation in the world, but our Constitution and laws do not require that we assist illegal conduct that adheres to our enemies, causes serious damage to our national security, and endangers the lives of our citizens. The State Department was well advised to "mark him well."

D. The Passport Revocation.

As the District Court describes the situation:

"The Department of State, aware of Agee's activities and believing that they took on particular significance in light of the recent Iranian crisis and the general unrest in other areas, moved to revoke his passport."

(App. 47) (Emphasis added). To revoke his passport, on December 23, 1979 the State Department sent the following letter by cable to the United States consulate in Hamburg, West Germany for delivery to Agee:

The Department of State has requested the Consulate to inform you that the Department has revoked Passport No. Z3007741 issued to you on March 30, 1978 under the provisions of Section 51.71(a) of Title 22, Code of Federal Regulations.

The Department's action is predicated upon a determination made by the Secretary under the provisions of Section 51.70(b)(4) that your activities abroad are causing or are likely to cause serious damage to the national security or the foreign policy of the United States. The reasons for the Secretary's determination are, in summary, as follows: Since the early 1970's it has been your stated intention to conduct a continuous campaign to disrupt the intelligence operations of the United States. In carrying out that campaign you have travelled in various countries (including, among others, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Jamaica, Cuba, and Germany), and your activities in those countries have caused serious damage to the national security and foreign policy of the United States. Your stated intention to continue such activities threatens additional damage of the same kind.

You are advised of your right to a hearing under Sections 51.80 through 51.-105 of the Regulations. A copy of the regulations is enclosed. If you should desire a hearing, you must notify the Consulate within sixty days after your receipt of this notice.

* * * * * *

You are also advised that the Consulate is prepared to receive, on an expedited basis, any evidence you may with to present on your behalf as to why your passport should be re-instated. This opportunity to present evidence is in addition to your right to a hearing pursuant to the Regulations and is designed to afford you the fullest possible due process.

(App. 13) (Emphasis added)

II. [51] THE INSTANT DECLARATORY JUDGMENT PROCEEDINGS

As indicated above, the State Department letter (App. 13) advised Agee of his right to a hearing on the revocation of his passport in accordance with the Passport Regulations, 22 C.F.R. §§ 51.80-51.105 A copy of the regulations was enclosed. However, Agee elected not to exhaust his administrative remedies, even though he was advised that the Consulate was prepared on an expedited basis to receive any evidence he desired to present. (App. 13) So instead of appealing the revocation by the Secretary of State, on December 31, 1979 Agee elected to file a complaint in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia against Cyrus Vance, Secretary of State, seeking declaratory and injunctive relief. He should have been required to exhaust his administrative remedy, Robeson v. Dulles, 235 F.2d 810 (D.C. Cir.), cert. denied, 352 U.S. 895, 77 S.Ct. 131, 1 L.Ed.2d 86 (1956), or failing that, to make a more adequate record in this case.

This complaint, which initiated the case presently before the Court, alleges that Agee suffered First and Fifth Amendment violations of his rights under the United States Constitution. It also alleges that Agee is a citizen of the United States residing in West Germany and holds a passport issued on March 30, 1978 to expire on March 29, 1983; that he is a well-known critic of the foreign policy of the United States and the clandestine activities of the Central Intelligence Agency; that on December 23, 1979 his passport was revoked, effective immediately, under the authority of 22 C.F.R. §§ 51.70(b)(4) and 51.71; and that the relevant State Department regulations authorized revocation of passports when:

(4) The Secretary determines that the national's activities abroad are causing or likely to cause serious damage to the national security or the foreign policy of the United States.

(App. 3); 22 C.F.R. § 51.70(b)(4).

The complaint charges that the revocation of Agee's passport was invalid and unlawful for five stated reasons and that such revocation caused him irreparable injury. It prayed that the Court (a) declare 22 C.F.R. §§ 51.70(b)(4) and 51.71 invalid and unconstitutional on their face and as applied to Agee, and (b) withdraw the revocation and restore Agee's passport. (App. 4)

The matter came on for hearing in the District Court on January 3, 1980, at which hearing it was concluded that Agee would file a motion for summary judgment, to which the government would respond. In the course of the January 3rd hearing a colloquy occurred with the court in which Agee's counsel conceded on behalf of his client that Agee was " causing or is likely to cause serious damage to the national security . . .", (App. 16-17, 29-30), and intended "to continue such activities". (App. 34, 30) (Emphasis added) Agee had often expressed his intention to do just that.

The District Court filed its Memorandum and Order on January 28, 1980 granting Agee's motion for summary judgment and denying the cross-motion of the United States; its judgment was based primarily on a determination that the regulation was invalid. Other issues were not reached. The court stated: "[a]ll that is held here is that because Congress has not acted to grant the Secretary authority, the regulation in issue cannot be upheld." (App. 53)

In reaching this decision, the District Court claimed support primarily from Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 78 S.Ct. 1113, 2 L.Ed.2d 1204 (1958) and Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. 1, 85 S.Ct. 1271, 14 L.Ed.2d 179 (1965), from which it concluded: "The Secretary of State's power to revoke or limit a passport flows from Congress not from the President . . . His power is no greater than Congress may choose to delegate to him." (App. 49) As applied to Agee's case, the District Court's decision held that Congress, in authorizing the President to promulgate passport regulations, did not authorize him by regulation to provide for the revocation of passports of citizens in "peacetime" who are causing or likely to cause serious damage to the "national security" or the "foreign policy" of the United States and intended to continue to cause such damage.

For reasons hereinafter set forth it is submitted that such conclusion misreads congressional intent and Kent and Zemel; that such decisions support a judgment here holding that the regulations authorizing the revocation of Agee's passport because of the serious damage he was causing and threatening to cause to our national security and foreign relations are constitutional; and that the revocation on such stated grounds was also constitutional.

III. [60] STATUTORY AUTHORITY FOR PASSPORT REVOCATION

The authority for the Secretary of State and consular officials to issue passports "under such rules as the President shall designate and prescribe for and on behalf of the United States" has existed since the first Passport Act was adopted on August 18, 1856, ch. 127, 11 Stat. 60-61. There have been minor amendments to the act but none changed the italicized wording set forth above granting the President the power to prescribe such rules. The same grant of power continues to the present day in 22 U.S.C. § 211a:

§ 211a. The Secretary of State may grant and issue passports, and cause passports to be granted, issued, and verified in foreign countries by diplomatic representatives of the United States, and by such consul generals, consuls, or vice consuls when in charge, as the Secretary of State may designate, and by the chief or other executive officer of the insular possessions of the United States, under such rules as the President shall designate and prescribe for and on behalf of the United States, and no other person shall grant, issue or verify such passports . . .

22 U.S.C. § 211a (Emphasis added). As the last clause indicates, the original purpose of this act was as much to stop Governors, notaries public, clerks of court and others from issuing passports as to recognize the power in the Secretary of State to issue them. This was a task that "naturally fell to the Department of State, as one of its manifestly proper functions" and had been exercised from the start of the nation. G. Hunt, The American Passport 36-42 (1898). However, in recent years the significance of passports has changed as they came to be required for international travel.

Pursuant to the statutory authority cited above, that passports "may" be issued under rules prescribed by the President, and in accordance with authority lawfully delegated to him by the President, the Secretary of State, on April 4, 1968 issued the regulation referred to in Agee's complaint:

§ 51.70, Denial of Passports. (a) A passport, except for direct return to the United States, shall not be issued or renewed in any case in which . . .

(4) the Secretary determines that the national's activities abroad are causing or are likely to cause serious damage to the national security or the foreign policy of the United States . . .

Passport Regulations, 22 C.F.R. § 51.70 (1968), 33 Fed.Reg. 5681 (Emphasis added). Subsection (4) has remained substantially unchanged to this date. Agee's basic contention here, which is supported by the decision of the District Court, is that this regulation is invalid "because Congress has not [validly] acted to grant the Secretary [the] Authority . . ." to exercise the authority conferred by said regulations. (App. 53).

The 1856 provision in § 211a, as quoted above, which authorizes the President to issue passports "under such rules as the President shall designate and prescribe for and on behalf of the United States", is obviously of sufficient breadth to authorize the promulgation of the questioned rule. It is, however, contended that the statute cannot be construed as broadly as Congress provided because to do so would constitute an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power since the statute (§ 211a) contained no adequate standard. Kent v. Dulles, and Zemel v. Rusk, decided in 1958 and 1965 respectively, held that the President's authority thereunder ". . . authorizes only those passport refusals and restrictions `which it could fairly be argued were adopted by Congress in light of prior administrative practice,' Kent v. Dulles . . .". Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. at 18, 85 S.Ct. at 1281. It is also contended that there was no administrative practice prior to 1926 of denying passports on grounds that our national security or foreign policy was being or would be seriously damaged.

Such construction of Zemel v. Rusk, however, is unwarranted because the Court there did uphold the denial of passports to an entire area (Cuba) on the grounds of "national security", 381 U.S. at 16, 85 S.Ct. at 1280, and "foreign policy considerations", 381 U.S. at 13, 85 S.Ct. at 1279. The greater power to deny passports to all citizens for a limited area on such grounds necessarily includes the lesser power to deny a passport to an individual citizen on the same grounds where it is conceded that his world-wide activities have caused serious damage to our national security and foreign policy, and that his stated intention to continue such activities was "likely to cause" additional damage of the same character. (App. 34, 29) This point, however, is not asserted as the rule for decision here, because the Department's administrative history of passport revocation, which was adopted by Congress in its 1978 enactment, supports the regulation and the revocation in Agee's case. No nation should request another nation to aid one of its citizens who admittedly intends to damage its national security and foreign policy.

IV. [67] THE SUPREME COURT AND PASSPORT REVOCATION

Agee contends that the Supreme Court cases discussing passport denials support his case. However, the two major cases, Zemel v. Rusk and Kent v. Dulles, actually provide much stronger support for the Government's case. The analysis of this issue must start with the admission by Agee that his travel activities have caused serious damage to the national security and foreign policy of the United States and that he intends to continue these activities. Notwithstanding this concession, Agee argues that Congress did not intend, when it authorized the President to issue passports "under such rules as he shall designate and prescribe," that he should be able to promulgate a regulation authorizing the revocation of passports for damage to our national security or foreign policy. On the basis of these facts, the following discussion will establish that Zemel v. Rusk and Kent v. Dulles support the presidential power to revoke Agee's passport on two separate grounds, either of which furnishes sufficient grounds to revoke his passport. Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. 1, 85 S.Ct. 1271, 14 L.Ed.2d 179 (1965) is analyzed first because it is the most recent case, because it modifies Kent to some extent, and because it supports the revocation of Agee's passport without any reliance on the affidavits filed by the parties in this Court.

A. The Cuban Area Passport Restriction in Zemel.

Chief Justice Warren's opinion in Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. 1, 85 S.Ct. 1271, 14 L.Ed.2d 179 (1965) followed Kent by seven years. Zemel clearly distinguishes Kent from the kind of facts we have here, and it also holds that passports to designated areas may be denied on national security and foreign policy grounds. Even though it dealt with an area limitation, it provides support for the position of the Government when applying the same grounds to the revocation of an individual's passport. Zemel holds that the Passport Act of 1926 authorized the President to impose area restrictions on travel by United States citizens to Cuba. It distinguished Kent v. Dulles on the ground that Zemel was based on "national security" and "foreign policy" considerations affecting all citizens and was not based on an applicant's political beliefs or associations. 381 U.S. at 13, 16, 85 S.Ct. at 1279, 1280. The same distinction exists here between Kent and Agee.

In distinguishing Kent v. Dulles, Chief Justice Warren noted that Kent involved a passport denial based on the applicant's "political beliefs or associations." 381 U.S. at 13, 85 S.Ct. at 1279. He referred to Kent and pointed out: "[i]n finding that history [prior administrative practice] did not support the position of the Secretary in that case, we summarized that history `so far as material here' — that is, so far as material to passport refusals based on the character of the particular applicant [Kent]." Id. (Emphasis added) Then he added: "the Secretary [of State in Zemel] has refused to validate appellant's passport not because of any characteristic peculiar to appellant, but rather because of foreign policy considerations affecting all citizens." Id. (Emphasis added). Also, most importantly for this case, the Zemel Court held that it was not restricted to relying on pre-1926 administrative practices:

Even if there had been no passport legislation enacted since the 1926 Act, the post-1926 history of executive imposition of area restrictions, as well as the pre-1926 history, would be of relevance to our construction of the Act. The interpretation expressly placed on a statute by those charged with its administration must be given weight by courts faced with the task of construing the statute. Udall v. Tallman, 380 U.S. 1, 16-18 [ 85 S.Ct. 792, 801-802, 13 L.Ed.2d 616]; Norwegian Nitrogen Co. v. United States, 288 U.S. 294, 315 [ 53 S.Ct. 350, 358, 77 L.Ed. 796].

381 U.S. at 11, 85 S.Ct. at 1278 (Emphasis added) The Court then proceeded to uphold the Cuban area passport restriction.

In reaching its conclusion in Zemel, the Court also placed strong reliance upon the Hostage Law, 22 U.S.C. § 1732, which has been unchanged as a United States Law since 1868. Act of July 27, 1868, ch. 249, § 3, 15 Stat. 224, R.S. § 2001.

It also cannot be forgotten that in the early days of the Castro regime, United States citizens were arrested and imprisoned without charges. We think, particularly in view of the President's statutory obligation to "use such means, not amounting to acts of war, as he may think necessary and proper" to secure the release of an American citizen unjustly deprived of his liberty by a foreign government,[16] that the Secretary has justifiably concluded that travel to Cuba by American citizens might involve the Nation in dangerous international incidents, and that the Constitution does not require him to validate passports for such travel.

[16] R.S. § 2001, 22 U.S.C. § 1732 (1958 ed.), provides:

"Whenever it is made known to the President that any citizen of the United States has been unjustly deprived of his liberty by or under the authority of any foreign government, it shall be the duty of the President forthwith to demand of that government the reasons of such imprisonment; and if it appears to be wrongful and in violation of the rights of American citizenship, the President shall forthwith demand the release of such citizen, and if the release so demanded is unreasonably delayed or refused, the President shall use such means, not amounting to acts of war, as he may think necessary and proper to obtain or effectuate the release; and all the facts and proceedings relative thereto shall as soon as practicable be communicated by the President to Congress."

381 U.S. at 15, 85 S.Ct. at 1280 (Emphasis added). Section 1732, as applied in Zemel, thus supports the revocation of Agee's passport. When the facts of this case are taken by their four corners it is obvious that the Secretary of State, acting as the President's lawful delegate, has determined that the revocation of Agee's passport is one of the means "necessary and proper to . . . effectuate the release" of the American hostages held captive in Iran. The Hostage Statute fits the present situation in Iran like a glove and, as in Zemel, supports the Secretary's denial (or revocation) of a passport. The District Court recognized the Executive's "extraordinary authority to act" under § 1732 and stated that "[i]f [Agee's] activities are detrimental to the hostages in Iran . . . his passport may be cancelled . . ." under § 1732. (App. 53) However, for some unexplained reason the court failed to recognize the strong factual circumstances which bring § 1732 into play as one of the statutes that justifies the revocation.

The factual situation in the instant case furnishes much stronger support for the application of § 1732 than the facts described and relied upon in Zemel. United States citizens in Iran are presently under arrest and imprisoned without charges. The record before the District Court disclosed some possibility that Agee might participate in a "Tribunal" that would judge these American citizens. His participation may or may not have been a realistic possibility. However, it was a rational conclusion at the time, given the news reports, Agee's renegade character, his past activities and stated future intentions, and the absence of any public denial that he might participate as reportedly requested by the militants in Iran. The passport revocation may have caused him to assert a change of mind.

Section 1732 is broad. Congress authorized the President to use "such means, not amounting to acts of war, as he may think necessary and proper to obtain or effectuate the release . . ." of United States citizens who are unjustly deprived of their liberty by any foreign government. The revocation of Agee's passport on national security and foreign relations grounds is obviously in pursuit of such objective and is amply supported by § 211a, the cited regulation, and the co-extensive authority conferred by § 1732.

The Zemel Court also noted "[t]hat the [Cuban area] restriction [on passports] which is challenged in this case is supported by the weightiest considerations of national security." 381 U.S. at 16, 85 S.Ct. at 1280 (Emphasis added). Reference was made to the prior Cuban missile crisis and Castro's holding of some Americans without charges. While Iran is more distant than Cuba, the present Iranian crisis evokes many of the same considerations on a more immediate basis. In fact, the present forcible occupation of our Embassy in Iran and the holding of our official staff as hostages are more properly considered as an act of war than the situations in the Cuban missile crisis and the prior arrest without charges of Americans in Cuba. None of our Embassy officials were seized or confined in Cuba. The "hostage" situation relied on by the Court in Zemel was at best minimal compared to the present situation in Iran. All civilized nations for 2,500 years have treated the persons of diplomatic envoys as inviolable. Thus, the Zemel Court's reliance on § 1732 and national security and foreign policy grounds, when applied to the instant case, lead inevitably to the conclusion that the revocation of Agee's passport is authorized by the same considerations.

The disposition that Zemel makes of the challenge to the delegation of legislative power is equally applicable to Agee:

Finally, appellant challenges the 1926 Act on the ground that it does not contain sufficiently definite standards for the formulation of travel controls by the Executive. It is important to bear in mind, in appraising this argument, that because of the changeable and explosive nature of contemporary international relations, and the fact that the Executive is immediately privy to information which cannot be swiftly presented to, evaluated by, and acted upon by the legislature, Congress — in giving the Executive authority over matters of foreign affairs — must of necessity paint with a brush broader than that it customarily wields in domestic areas.

"Practically every volume of the United States Statutes contains one or more acts or joint resolutions of Congress authorizing action by the President in respect of subjects affecting foreign relations, which either leave the exercise of the power to his unrestricted judgment, or provide a standard far more general than that which has always been considered requisite with regard to domestic affairs." United States v. Curtiss-Wright Corp., 299 U.S. 304, 324 [ 57 S.Ct. 216, 222, 81 L.Ed. 255].

This does not mean that simply because a statute deals with foreign relations, it can grant the Executive totally unrestricted freedom of choice. However, the 1926 Act contains no such grant. We have held, Kent v. Dulles, supra, and reaffirm today, that the 1926 Act must take its content from history: it authorizes only those passport refusals and restrictions "which it could fairly be argued were adopted by Congress in light of prior administrative practice." Kent v. Dulles, supra, at 128 [ 78 S.Ct. at 1719]. So limited, the Act does not constitute an invalid delegation.

381 U.S. at 17-18, 85 S.Ct. at 1281 (Emphasis added). In essence, the Zemel Court added another broad ground to the list in Kent, discussed infra, that the Executive may rely upon to withhold or revoke passports and the prior administrative practice of the Secretary supports the revocation of Agee's passport.

B. History of Administrative Denial of Passport Applications.

Zemel holds that the interpretation of the Act by the Executive charged with its administration before its 1926 reenactment, and subsequent thereto, may both be considered in determining whether Congress will be deemed to have recognized and consented to the exercise of particular authority. This calls for a review of past passport practices to determine "which it could fairly be argued were adopted by Congress in light of prior administrative [executive] practice." Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. at 18, 85 S.Ct. at 1281. Interim declarations by Congress are also relevant to this review.

In times of emergency Congress has recognized that certain factors should be taken into consideration in the issuance of passports, i. e., "public safety"; "the interests of the United States"; "if [the President] deems that the interests of the United States so require"; "[promote] . . . the national defense"; "inimical to the best interests of the United States"; "needed to insure the national security." Following these declarations, Congress in 1978 continued the passport requirement because the "public safety" so required. The traditional needs of national security had previously been considered in connection with the emergencies legislation. The 1978 Act continued the emergencies passport requirements into the so-called peacetime future.

This brings up the passport practices before and after the 1926 reenactment of § 211a. Even prior to the 1856 Passport Act the Executive issued passports on a discretionary basis. During the Civil War passports were required by an order of the Secretary of State and were denied to those subject to military service without a bond. Passports were also denied to citizens "on errands hostile and injurious to the peace of the country and dangerous to the Union." While national security is more vital in wartime, it is always a matter of major governmental concern.

The Attorney General in 1901 ruled that a passport may be denied in the "discretion" of the Secretary of State, for "an avowed anarchist, for instance." In 1903 President Roosevelt promulgated passport rules which authorized the rejection of applications which would "further an unlawful or improper purpose." In 1906 the Solicitor of the Department of State advised that a passport could be denied to a citizen who had gone to China and became notorious as a promoter of gambling and prostitution because he "is likely to embarrass the United States." In 1907 the Department approved a decision of the Consul General refusing to issue a passport to one engaged in blackmailing and "disturbing, or endeavoring to disturb, the relations of this country with the representatives of foreign countries." This is a perfect description of Agee's presently stated intention. The Department also asserted the right to deny passports "on high grounds of public policy" and if there "is reason to believe that he will put the passports to an improper or unlawful use."

In 1920 President Wilson's passport rules authorized the Secretary "to refuse [passports] in his discretion" to those who were "within a dangerous class." Following the enactment of the 1926 Act, President Coolidge issued new passport rules in 1928. These required applicants to state the object of their trip to each country and furnish proof thereof, and authorized the Secretary to deny passports in his discretion. President Hoover's Executive Order was identical, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt's order was substantially the same. The Passport Division Office Instructions of July 30, 1937 set forth examples of persons who could be denied passports under the discretionary power of the Secretary. These included persons guilty of disloyal acts, persons suspected of an intention to commit a crime or otherwise to bring grave discredit on this country, evaders of justice, and "those who wish to go abroad to take part in the political or military affairs of foreign countries in ways which would be contrary to the policy or inimical to the welfare of the United States." The 1957 Senate Hearings at 74 set forth two examples of passports denied on the latter ground.

The 1930's was also the period when a number of area restrictions were imposed on the issuance of passports. These included Spain (1936), Ethiopia (1935), China (1937), Europe (1939), and after World War II, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Bulgaria, Communist China, Rumania and the Soviet Union.

The rules issued under the 1941 Act recognized the Secretary's discretion and called for consideration of whether the use of the passport would be "prejudicial to the interests of the United States." In 1947, instructions to consular officers called for passport applications to be referred to the Department wherever the applicant's political activities were "of a character which tends to be inimical to the best interest of the United States or detrimental to international harmony and understanding." From 1948 to 1955 the Department notified all "Bearers of Passports" as follows:

Engaging in political affairs in foreign countries

The Department has always considered that it is improper for American citizens to interfere in the political affairs of foreign countries and in general has taken such action as ground for refusing passport and registration facilities to them or extending protection to them.

(Emphasis added)

Foreign policy considerations were also made a basis for denying passports in the regulation issued in 1952. This authorized such action when citizens were engaged in activities which would violate laws designed to protect the security of the United States "[i]n order to promote the national interest by assuring that the conduct of foreign relations shall be free from unlawful interference." The 1956 amendment of this regulation provided that passports should be denied for activities "prejudicial to the orderly conduct of foreign relations; or . . . prejudicial to the interests of the United States." In 1968 this standard was restated to authorize passport denial for an applicant whose activities abroad are causing or are likely to cause serious damage to the national security or foreign policy of the United States. This regulation has not been changed in the past 12 years, and constitutes the present standard.

The passport practices of the State Department through the years have been fully communicated to Congress. The 150 year precedent of denying passports to those who could interfere with the Secretary carrying out our foreign policy was reported to Congress in 1956, and six examples in 1955 were cited where passports were refused to "participants in political affairs abroad whose activities were deemed harmful to good relations." These six refusals were called to the Senate's attention in 1957 along with several current denials for travel to certain areas which "would be prejudicial to the foreign policy of the United States . . ." During the same hearings the State Department reported that 166 passports had been refused for "Security Reasons" during the 55 month period from February 5, 1951 to August 31, 1952 and from January 1, 1954 to December 31, 1956.

The Senate subcommittee was fully informed of the Department regulations and interpretations, the extent and exercise of departmental discretion, and that the regulations merely confirmed Department practice "as far back as you can trace it" of refusing passports to persons who were acting "contrary to the policy of the United States." The Legislative Reference Service of the Library of Congress reported in 1957 that passports were denied to "those on missions adverse to the national interests" and that the political officers in the Department would determine whether travel would be "harmful to the national interests."

Following the 1958 decision in Kent v. Dulles, Congress was advised that the Executive had traditionally denied passports where their issuance would be "inimical to United States foreign relations." This practice continued after Kent and in 1960 a Congressional Staff Report to the Senate Committee on Government Operations reported

that the authority to issue or withhold passports has, by precedent and law, been vested in the Secretary of State as a part of his responsibility to protect American citizens traveling abroad, and what he considered to be the best interests of the Nation.

(Emphasis added).

Passports have also been denied where the citizen's acts were not illegal but were considered inimical to the interests of the United States. Examples: Colonel Hubert F. Julian (supplying arms to various countries), and Charles Luke McKissack and his assistant (attorneys for Mrs. Sirhan). The Note, Passport Refusals for Political Reasons: Constitutional Issues and Judicial Review, 61 Yale L.J. 170 (1952) reported several similar well known passport denials: Kamen (a radiation physicist who had carelessly disclosed confidential information to a Soviet vice-counsel, Id. at 174-76); Isacson (American Labor Party member who proposed to aid the Greek rebels, Id. at 176); Robeson (speaking and giving concerts abroad "not in interests of the United States", Id. at 176-77); Lamont (left-wing writer, travel "not . . . in the best interests of the United States," Id. at 177); Charles E. Davis (spied for Senator Joseph McCarthy on Communists and United States diplomatic personnel "to the prejudice of Switzerland," Id. at 178).

In analyzing prior administrative practice it is erroneous to restrict the inquiry solely to revocations since 1968 (App. 50) when the regulation reached its present form. That regulation merely codified the Secretary's long standing interpretation of his authority under the statute since the date of its original enactment in 1856. It is this consistent interpretation of the Act over its entire life that constitutes the prior administrative practice that must be considered. Congress was fully aware of the Department's denials of passports on grounds of national security and foreign policy, it never objected thereto, and it enacted the present law in 1978 requiring passports with full knowledge that the Department would follow its long standing administrative practice applying and interpreting the relevant statutes and regulations.

Therefore, when Congress, with detailed knowledge of the Department's interpretation of its authority and the statute, adopted the present statute in 1978, without altering the existing statutes, it adopted and confirmed the authority of the Executive to continue its prior administrative practise. Chemehuevi Tribe of Indians v. FPC, 420 U.S. 395, 410, 95 S.Ct. 1066, 1075, 43 L.Ed.2d 279 (1975); NLRB v. Bell Aerospace Co., 416 U.S. 267, 275, 94 S.Ct. 1757, 1762, 40 L.Ed.2d 134 (1974); Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. at 12, 18, 85 S.Ct. at 1278, 1281; Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 125, 127, 78 S.Ct. 1118.

In view of this history it was error for the District Court to conclude that the Secretary, in denying passports on national security and foreign policy considerations through the years, has not followed "administrative practice sufficiently substantial and consistent to warrant [the implied approval of] Congress." Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. at 12, 85 S.Ct. at 1279. The denial of passports to those who intend to cause serious damage to our national security and foreign policy is the very minimal basis that Congress would expect the Department to follow. Congress has so indicated by its refusal since 1856 to make any change in the basic grant of authority to the President. 22 U.S.C. § 211a. Prior administrative practice therefore under Zemel v. Rusk supports the revocation of Agee's passport on national security and foreign policy grounds. Section 1732 is additional support for such revocation.

Finally, in view of Agee's past activities and his admissions here, two additional statutes add support to the Secretary's revocation of Agee's passport on national security grounds. First, Congress recognized in the statute establishing the Central Intelligence Agency that it was "in the interest of national security . . ." to "[protect] intelligence sources and methods from unauthorized disclosure" and to maintain "the security of foreign intelligence activities of the United States". 50 U.S.C. §§ 403(d)(3), 403g (Emphasis added). Therefore, revoking Agee's passport in an attempt to stop his disclosure of "intelligence sources and methods," id., is statutorily recognized as being "in the interest of national security."

That national security considerations were to be considered in granting or denying passports also derives some support from the Act of June 27, 1952, which provided that the Administrator of the Bureau of Security and Consular Affairs of the Department of State, which Bureau includes the Passport Office, "shall have authority to maintain direct and continuous liaison with the [FBI and the CIA] and with other internal security officers of the Government for the purpose of obtaining and exchanging information for use in enforcing the provisions of this Chapter in the interest of the internal security of the United States." 8 U.S.C. § 1105 ( 66 Stat. 174-175, 91 Stat. 847).

It thus appears that Zemel greatly expands Kent's illegal conduct grounds, see V, infra, and provides additional authority for the revocation of passports on national security and foreign policy grounds where such action is consistent with historical administrative practice. Revoking Agee's passport, and thereby hopefully halting the illegal and dangerous release of intelligence sources and methods throughout the world, is clearly within the interests of national security. Therefore, the Secretary's action in the instant case was authorized by Congress and was lawful.

V. [101] KENT v. DULLES ANALYZED AND DISTINGUISHED

Agee contends that Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 78 S.Ct. 1113, 2 L.Ed.2d 1204 (1958), does not support revocation on national security or foreign policy grounds. That case, however, is not authority on such point because the Court never discussed such grounds notwithstanding the argument in its dissent, that such grounds were present. What is of significance here is that Kent did recognize that passport revocation is authorized when the applicant has engaged in conduct that is "illegal" or in "violat[ion of] the laws of the United States." Id. 357 U.S. at 127, 78 S.Ct. at 1119.

The record before the District Court indicates instances of illegal conduct in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 793(d). This is sufficient under Kent to support the passport revocation. In addition, the McMahon and Agee affidavits before this Court indicate additional illegal conduct of a very serious nature. This decision does not rely on these additional violations but because of their serious nature they are not overlooked and are discussed in the Appendix in the event that his conduct receives further consideration. (App. 80-98) The serious damage to our national security and foreign policy which is present in the record before the District Court, and is conceded, also involves "illegal conduct."

Kent was denied a passport by the Government, in accordance with the then existing regulations, which required an applicant to submit an affidavit stating whether he was then or ever had been a communist. When Kent refused to submit such an affidavit, his passport application was denied and he brought a successful suit for declaratory relief. The Supreme Court upheld his claim and ruled that "freedom to travel is . . . an important aspect of the citizen's `liberty'". 357 U.S. at 127, 78 S.Ct. at 1119.

The opinion stated that the power granted the President by Congress did not extend to denying passports for refusal to file such affidavits. In the course of reaching that conclusion the Court defined several areas in which Congress had authorized passports to be denied. First, naturally, was when citizenship or allegiance did not exist.

Second, was [when] . . . the applicant was participating in illegal conduct, trying to escape the toils of the law, promoting passport frauds, or otherwise engaging in conduct which would violate the laws of the United States.

Id. at 127, 78 S.Ct. at 1119. The Court also stated that in the light of prior administrative practices those two categories were the only ones which it could fairly be argued were adopted by Congress when Congress reenacted the statute in 1926. The Court, however, did observe that one can find in the records of the State Department "rulings of subordinates covering a wider range of activities than the two indicated." Id. at 128, 78 S.Ct. at 1119. However, consideration need not be taken here of such communist activities. The Court merely refused to give the Secretary of State "unbridled discretion" to grant or withhold a passport from a citizen for any substantive reason he may choose. Id. Withholding passports on national security and foreign relations grounds is not an exercise of "unbridled power." After explaining that the refusal to file a non-communist affidavit did not relate to citizenship or allegiance on the one hand, or to criminal or unlawful conduct on the other, the Court ordered the issuance of the passport.

Kent did not involve serious damage to the national security of the foreign policy of the United States. The Court said "[w]e deal with beliefs, with associations, with ideological matters." Id. at 130, 78 S.Ct. at 1120. Agee does not present a case that deals with beliefs, associations or ideological matters. Rather Agee's acts cause serious damage to our national security and foreign policy, and such conceded damage involves illegal conduct. Thus, Kent v. Dulles is important for its recognition that passports may be denied where the person was participating in illegal conduct which would violate the laws of the United States. 357 U.S. at 127, 78 S.Ct. at 1118. This brings to the fore an analysis of Agee's acts that constitute illegal conduct.

A. Illegal Conduct Under Kent v. Dulles as a Grounds for Passport Revocation.

In this case Agee has conceded that his actions "have caused serious damage to the national security and foreign policy of the United States" and that "[his] stated intention to continue such activities threatens additional damage of the same kind." (App. 13, 30) From the facts that the court may consider under judicial notice, Fed.R.Evid. 201(b), (c), (f), and the affidavits filed in the District Court, it may also be concluded that in causing "serious damage to the national security and foreign policy" Agee has been, and is, "participating in illegal conduct . . . which would violate the laws of the United States". 357 U.S. at 127, 78 S.Ct. at 1119. He has also stated his intention "to continue such activities" which, it will be demonstrated, violate our laws.

In developing this point it should be first noted that the case now before this Court is a de novo separate judicial proceeding and not a direct appeal from an administrative decision where the reviewing court is limited strictly to the factual and legal considerations upon which the administrative action was based. Cf. Securities and Exchange Commission v. Chenery Corporation, 318 U.S. 80, 87, 63 S.Ct. 454, 459, 87 L.Ed. 626 (1943). It is thus permissible on this appeal to rely upon facts set out in the uncontradicted affidavits of record in the District Court, the concessions of appellant, the conclusions of law and fact admitted by the parties in this proceeding, and any fact of which judicial notice may be taken because it is "not subject to reasonable dispute in that it is either (1) generally known within the territorial jurisdiction of the trial court or (2) capable of accurate and ready determination by resort to sources whose accuracy cannot be reasonably questioned." Fed.R.Evid. 201(b), (c), (f).

Agee's complaint alleges that "exhaustion of administrative remedies is not required . . . " (App. 4), and he did not exhaust his administrative remedies. He thus avoided cross-examination, but also lost whatever advantage might accrue to him from this Court being limited to the administrative record. While a bare bones decision can be rendered on the limited facts in this record, the case would have better presented the issues if the Department hearing had been held, or if the trial court had held an evidentiary hearing, or if the Government had taken Agee's deposition, because "the facts as viewed by an administrator's expert eye may provide guidance to a court in reaching constitutional determinations . . .." Plano v. Baker, 504 F.2d 595, 599 (2d Cir. 1974). Cf. Robeson v. Dulles, supra note 4. His deposition might also have provided further illuminating facts as to his conduct and intentions. However, the record is sufficient to support the revocation of his passport for the "illegal conduct" which is involved in his past disclosure of secret CIA information in violation of the applicable criminal statute.

The most striking example of Agee's illegal conduct is seen under the Wilful Communication of Defense Information statute. 18 U.S.C. § 793(d). This statute provides:

"Whoever, lawfully having possession of . . . information relating to the national defense which information the possessor has reason to believe could be used to the injury of the United States or to the advantage of any foreign nation, willfully communicates, delivers, transmits, or causes to be communicated . . . [etc.] . . . the same to any person not entitled to receive it . . . [s]hall be fined . . . or imprisoned . ."

The record indicates that Agee, by his disclosures throughout the world of the identity of undercover CIA agents, and CIA sources and methods, 50 U.S.C. § 403(d)(3), supra, has clearly violated 18 U.S.C. § 793(d). Such disclosure of the identities of the agents, or CIA sources and methods, in each foreign country would support a separate indictment. The District Court could have concluded from the record that Agee committed such offense, thus justifying revocation of his passport under Kent. A draft indictment is set forth in the margin.

B. The Relationship of the Passport Regulation to Illegal Conduct.

The District Court remarked that: "If Agee is indicted for any violation of law, his passport may be cancelled". (App. 53) Agee argues that any criminal conduct cannot support the revocation of his passport on national security and foreign policy considerations unless they comply with a separate Passport Regulation which authorizes revocation for crimes in certain stages of prosecution. The regulation referred to provides that passports shall not be issued, except for direct return to the

United States, where there is an outstanding Federal warrant of arrest for a felony, where parole or probation conditions would be violated or the applicant has been committed to a mental institution, where extradition is sought from a foreign country, or where a subpoena to the passport applicant involves a Federal prosecution or a grand jury investigation. 22 C.F.R. § 51.70(a)(1) to (5). The underlying theory of Agee's contention with respect to this regulation is that it exhausts the circumstances under which illegal conduct may constitute grounds for denying passports. However, such regulation merely provides several specific grounds for denying passports and under Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. at 127, 78 S.Ct. at 1118, does not foreclose denying passports for citizens who are "otherwise engaging in conduct which would violate the laws of the United States." Id.

Kent describes those "trying to escape the toils of the law" only as one group who might be denied passports. The enumeration of circumstances in subsections (a)(1) to (5) all involve persons that may be characterized as being in that group. The process of the courts has proceeded further with respect to those covered by subsections (a)(1) to (5), but that enumeration is by no means exclusive and Kent recognizes that just "participating in illegal conduct" may support a passport denial. Id. It is thus clear that illegal conduct need not be formally processed to the stage of indictment, arrest warrant, subpoena, extradition or court order to constitute grounds for denial of a passport.

Since criminal conduct involving "national security" or "foreign relations considerations" constitutes "illegal conduct" and "[violations of] the laws of the United States," Kent recognizes that such conduct may serve as grounds for denying passports even though actual formal criminal charges have not been laid or are not in the process of being prosecuted in some formal manner. The Government need not proceed against every law violator by formal means in order to prove in some separate proceeding that his conduct was illegal. Prosecution of offenders is declined in many instances where laws are violated, as in the case of grants of immunity. It would be absurd to hold that because an admitted criminal was given prosecutorial immunity to act as a witness in securing the conviction of other greater criminals, the Government was thereby foreclosed from denying him a passport by proving in a separate passport proceeding that he had violated the United States criminal laws as conceded by his own testimony. Declining prosecution because it would involve the disclosure of informants or classified matter is another example. Also, law violators are frequently permitted to continue without prosecution for a considerable period of time because their surveillance produces evidence of other criminal violations, such as continuing espionage involving others.

The present factual situation is one where the failure of the Government to proceed against a wrongdoer on criminal grounds does not preclude its ability to use civil and other remedies. See United States v. Kearns, 595 F.2d 729, 732 (D.C. Cir. 1978) ( civil prosecution of officer of Export-Import Branch for breach of fiduciary duty).

The regulation authorizing the refusal of passport applications where the national's activities abroad are causing or are likely to cause serious damage to the national security or the foreign policy of the United States, provides a non-criminal basis for denying passports. The lynchpin to this entire discussion is that Agee's clearly illegal conduct also damaged the national security. Thus, the passport revocation was legal under Kent, and under § 51.70.

This analysis likewise disposes of the contention that there is some bar to revoking Agee's passport because the Attorney General at some earlier date allegedly stated that the Department of Justice did not intend to bring formal criminal charges against him.

VI.

THE PRESENT STANDARD FOR THE ISSUANCE OF PASSPORTS UNDER THE STATUTE REQUIRING PASSPORTS

Generally throughout the history of the United States citizens have not been required to have passports to enter and leave the country. However, there have been several exceptions. First, an 1815 enactment during the War of 1812 required passports. Act of February 4, 1815, ch. 31, § 11, 3 Stat. 200. Second, during the Civil War passports were required by order of the Secretary of State. The third exception occurred during World War I when Presidential Proclamation No. 1473 (40 Stat. 1829), under the Act of May 22, 1918, 40 Stat. 559, made it unlawful to leave or enter the United States without a valid passport. This later Act was effective only in wartime but it was amended in 1941 so it could be applied prior to our entry in World War II. Act of June 21, 1941, ch. 210, 55 Stat. 252-53. See the President's Proclamation No. 2523 of November 14, 1941, 55 Stat. 1696. That emergency continued until April 28, 1952 and was then extended until April 1, 1953 (66 Stat. 54, 57, 96, 137, 330, 333). Next, the Act of June 27, 1952, Pub.L. No. 414, ch. 2, § 215(b), 66 Stat. 190, authorized the President by Proclamation to require citizens to have passports for foreign travel. It was under this Act that citizens' passports were subsequently required, which authority was scheduled to expire on September 14, 1978.

Each of these instances in our nation's history, when passports have been required of our citizens to leave or enter the country, came into force to protect our national security and foreign policy. It was in that climate that passports were to be issued, denied or revoked. Congress' modus operandi when it required passports during those periods is significant. In each of those four instances it never explicitly provided any standards in the Act that should be followed by the Executive in issuing or refusing to issue passports. Yet, surely Congress implicitly intended that the Executive would apply national security standards in issuing and denying passports. Otherwise, if passports were to be issued to all citizens willy-nilly, the object in requiring passports would be practically meaningless. Thus, the fact that Congress did not specifically provide standards for revocation in the statute requiring passports indicates that Congress recognized the Executive as possessing such power without a more specific Congressional delegation.

All this is relevant to the present situation because again in 1978, Congress, in the troubled world situation then existing, again provided by amendment to the 1952 Act, supra, that passports were required for all citizens leaving or entering the United States:

"(b) Except as otherwise provided by the President and subject to such limitations and exceptions as the President may authorize and prescribe, it shall be unlawful for any citizen of the United States to depart from or enter, or attempt to depart from or enter, the United States unless he bears a valid passport."

8 U.S.C. § 1185(b), Act of October 7, 1978, Pub.L. No. 95-426, 92 Stat. 993. The Conference Committee Report on the bill states that the above enactment made permanent the authority of the President to require American citizens to bear valid passports when entering or leaving the United States and preserved the authority that had previously been exercised on an "emergency basis" from otherwise lapsing in September, 1978.

This whole case turns on the Congressional intent which is indicated by the enactment of this 1978 statute because that is the present law. Much of the discussion of the parties as to the intent of earlier Congresses and the effect of earlier court decisions becomes passe because of this latest enactment. The intent of Congress in the present law is expressed in the Senate Committee Report on the Bill:

The committee recognizes clearly that the passport authority should not be restricted in any way which would limit the President's ability to control the departure of U.S. citizens to foreign countries when such travel is inconsistent with a greater government interest, such as preventing a citizen who is seeking to avoid the judicial processes of the United States. Nor would the committee wish to limit the President's ability to deter U.S. citizens from entering countries with which the United States is at war or regions where there are occurring hostilities which relate to American foreign policy interests.

S.Rep. No. 842, 95th Cong., 2d Sess. 14 (1978) (Emphasis added). It is obvious that Agee is interested in travelling to countries where hostilities are occurring which directly relate to American foreign policy interests. In addition, a passport may be denied if Agee's right to travel is inconsistent with "a greater government interest." When that standard is applied the answer is also obvious. The authorization of Agee to travel is clearly inconsistent with, and is outweighed by, the greater government interest of protecting our national security and foreign policy from the serious damage that Agee concedes he intends and which the record indicates he causes. (App. 36-37) Our foreign policy cannot stand much further damage, particularly since Agee is presently directing his attention in Iran and the near East where the vital interests of our nation are most seriously hazarded.

It should also be noted that the 1978 Act delegates legislative authority over the issuance of passports essentially on the same basis as § 211a, i. e., the same degree of discretion. The two statutes are in pari materia — they both authorize the President to promulgate passport regulations — and are to be read together. Thus, the deference due the long standing administrative construction of the President's power under § 211a applies to the same delegation in § 1185(b). The fact that Congress followed the same pattern as § 211a, and gave no indication of its dissatisfaction with the extent of the authority exercised by the President under that section, enhances the conclusion that Congress adopted the prior administrative practice and intended to authorize the Secretary to continue the same practices. Chemehuevi Tribe of Indians v. FPC, 420 U.S. 395, 410, 95 S.Ct. 1066, 1075, 43 L.Ed.2d 279 (1975); NLRB v. Bell Aerospace Co., 416 U.S. 267, 274-75, 94 S.Ct. 1757, 1761-2, 40 L.Ed.2d 134 (1974); Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. 1, 18, 85 S.Ct. 1271, 1281, 14 L.Ed.2d 179 (1965); Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 125, 128, 78 S.Ct. 1113, 1119, 2 L.Ed.2d 1204 (1958).

The Secretary of State thus conforms to the intent of Congress, and therefore acts constitutionally, when he revokes a passport under the regulation on the factual circumstances that Agee presents.

VII. [130] CONGRESSIONAL SILENCE AS LEGISLATIVE INTENT

It is argued that Congress has not enacted any of the bills that were introduced in Congress to provide the Executive with specific statutory authority to deny passports when their issuance would cause serious damage to our national security or foreign policy, and that such Congressional silence indicates that Congress thereby intended to withhold such authority. However, there is a total absence of any specific expression by Congress that in any way indicates any such intent.

Thousands of bills are introduced in every Congress that never see the light of day, like those that were not enacted here. The 95th Congress had over 25,000 bills introduced. Yet, less than 650 were enacted into public laws. Persuasive congressional intent cannot ordinarily be discerned from "mere silence". Boys Market, Inc. v. Retail Clerks Union, 398 U.S. 235, 241, 90 S.Ct. 1583, 1587, 26 L.Ed.2d 199 (1970). See also United States v. Bd. of Commissioners of Sheffield, 435 U.S. 110, 135, 149, 98 S.Ct. 965, 988, 55 L.Ed.2d 148 (1978) ("it is impermissible to draw inferences of approval from the unexplained inaction of Congress"); Girouard v. United States, 328 U.S. 61, 69, 66 S.Ct. 826, 830, 90 L.Ed. 1084 (1946) ("[i]t is at best treacherous to find in congressional silence alone the adoption of a controlling rule of law."); NLRB v. Plasterers' Local Union, 404 U.S. 116, 129-30, 92 S.Ct. 360, 368-369, 30 L.Ed.2d 312 (1971). Here, no bill ever reached the floor in either house. The mere failure of any legislative body to enact a bill that never reaches a floor in most instances is nothing more than "sound and fury, signifying nothing." Several senators expressing opposition do not constitute congressional intent. Very few laws pass unanimously. Most bills have some opposition. Generally, as here, there are too many variants between the contents of such bills and a pending legal question to convert congressional inaction into the substance of a declared intent. In other instances there is no clear expression by Congress. Then too, subsequent enactments and developments, as here following Kent, and its modification (of Agee's interpretation) by Zemel, can create substantive changes that materially affect the construction of a statute.

VIII. [133] ADDITIONAL CONSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES

Agee raises three additional challenges to the Secretary's actions: (1) violation of the Fifth Amendment's right to travel, (2) violation of the First Amendment, and (3) violation of his right to procedural due process. Each of these contentions has been considered fully and none of them warrant setting aside the revocation of Agee's passport. Since they were not discussed by the District Court nor by this Court there is no necessity to consider them further in this opinion.

CONCLUSIONS

The Passport Regulations, §§ 50.71(b)(4) and 51.71, which authorize the denial of passports to prevent serious damage to our national security and foreign policy are constitutional on their face, and are constitutional as applied to Philip Agee on the record in this de novo declaratory judgment action, in which the existence of such serious damage is conceded.

First, 22 U.S.C. § 1732, with its wide grant of authority to the President in hostage situations, on the authority of Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. 1, 85 S.Ct. 1271, 14 L.Ed.2d 179 (1965), authorized the revocation of Agee's passport as part of the President's efforts to free the Americans held hostages in Iran and to conduct our foreign policy. The District Court correctly perceived the possible relevance of this statute but did not give full effect to the facts which justify its use to support the instant passport revocation.

Second, Justice Douglas' opinion in Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 127, 78 S.Ct. 1113, 1118, 2 L.Ed.2d 1204 (1958) supports the constitutionality of the denial of passports generally, and Agee's in particular, for the "illegal conduct" involved in Agee's violations of 18 U.S.C. § 793(d). It is frosting on the cake that such illegal acts also cause serious damage to our national security and foreign policy and thus provide additional support for revocation under the regulation.

Third, Zemel v. Rusk supports the denial of passports on "national security" and "foreign policy" grounds and such denial is consistent with prior administrative practice.

Fourth, in the three instances in 1861, 1918 and 1941, when passports were required to protect our national security and foreign policy, no change was made in the President's authority which was first recognized by the Act of August 18, 1856, 11 Stat. 60-61. Congress again in 1978 required citizens to have passports for foreign travels. In enacting such law the Senate Committee Report on the Act of August 18, 1978, indicated additionally that passports may be denied by the Executive on national security and foreign policy grounds "when such travel is inconsistent with a greater government interest." It is clear here that to issue a passport to a citizen who admittedly has caused and intends to cause serious damage to our national security and foreign policy, and is capable of doing so, would be inconsistent with the "greater government interest" in avoiding serious damage to such vital interests of the nation. There are relatively few United States citizens who have the same capability and vicious intent to damage our national security as has Mr. Agee. And his particular brand of hate, i. e., alleged CIA activities, is presently at the very core of the Iranian "problem" with the terrorists' demand that the Embassy staff be tried as "spies."

To the extent that the foregoing differs from the majority opinion I respectfully dissent.

APPENDIX

ILLEGAL CONDUCT BY AGEE AS INDICATED BY AFFIDAVITS FILED IN THIS COURT ON APPEAL

A.

The Definitional Criminal Statutes.

B.

Illegal Conduct and Violation of United States Laws by Agee.

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(2) any such act against the person is done within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States;

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shall be punished by imprisonment for any term of years or for life.

OVERT ACTS